A massive black hole feasting on a star outside of a galactic nucleus was observed in bright radio waves for the first time.#TheAbstract
Scientists Discover Rogue Star-Eating Black Hole Far From Home
Welcome back to the Abstract! Here are the studies this week that mounted a defense, felt out of place, found new life, and resurrected the gods of yore.First, a tale of pregnant stinkbugs, parasitic wasps, and fungi weapons that is fit for a rebooted Aesop fable. Then, a fast food stop for an errant black hole; a new cast of worms, mollusks, and “tusk-shells” from the deep sea; and a friendly reminder to REPENT, SINNERS, or suffer divine wrath.
I also wanted to give another quick shoutout to my book First Contact: The Story of Our Obsession with Aliens, which is now out in the wild. And if you’d like to keep up with news about the book, alien lore, and my other goings-on, subscribe to my personal newsletter the BeX Files.
And now, to the science!
Painting eggs (with protective fungi)
Nishino, Takanori et al. “Defensive fungal symbiosis on insect hindlegs.” Science.For years, scientists assumed that the weird lumps on the hindlegs of some female stinkbugs were used as auditory organs to perceive sound. A new study reveals that the function of these “tympanum” organs is, in fact, way weirder: They are miniature fungi farms that the “gravid” (pregnant) females use to culture “hyphae” (fungal filaments) to grow anti-wasp coatings for their eggs.
“To address the question of the function of the tympanum, we investigated the Japanese dinidorid stinkbug Megymenum gracilicorne and discovered that this stinkbug’s hindleg organ is not auditory but a previously unknown type of symbiotic organ,” said researchers led by Takanori Nishino of the University of Tsukuba.
“We observed that the gravid females laid eggs in a row, and when each egg was deposited, the females rhythmically scratched the fungus-covered hindleg organ with the tarsal claws of the opposite hindleg and rubbed the egg surface, smearing the fungi onto the eggs,” the team said. “Within a few days, the fungal hyphae grew to cover the entire egg mass. On hatching, the hyphae attached to the body surface of newborn nymphs, although the fungi were subsequently lost as the nymphs molted and grew.”
Image: Nishino, Takanori et al.
Don’t you just love the smell of fungus-covered eggs in the morning? Probably not, and that’s the point. Parasitic wasps like to go around ovipositing (laying their young) inside the eggs of other bugs, but the team discovered they were repeatedly thwarted by the stinkbug shield.“In the experimental arena, the female wasps approached both the fungus-removed eggs and the fungus-covered eggs,” the researchers said. “Immediately after antennal drumming on the egg surface, the female wasps only oviposited on the cleaned eggs… It is notable that wasps still approached egg masses fully covered by fungal hyphae, despite showing intense self-grooming, which suggested that the hyphae were adherent.”
That’s what these wasps get for trying to mooch off stinkbug eggs: a faceful of sticky fungal goo that’s going to take some very intense self-grooming to remove. To that end, the team concluded that “the fungi selectively cultured on the female’s hindleg organ of M. gracilicorne are transferred to eggs to act as a physical defense against parasitic wasp attack.”
As the old adage goes, never judge a stinkbug by her conspicuous tympanal organs.
In other news…
Who left a supermassive black hole all the way over here?
When stars wander too close to black holes, they are torn apart by extreme tidal forces, producing radiant light shows called tidal disruption events (TDEs). Astronomers have witnessed these events countless times near the central nucleus of distant galaxies, which are occupied by supermassive black holes, but a team has now captured an unprecedented glimpse of an “off-nuclear” TDE far from the galactic core.
The event, called AT 2024tvd, involved a black hole with a possible mass of up to 10 million Suns. While it’s a pretty typical enormous black hole, what’s weird is that it was spotted eating a star about 2,600 light years from the nucleus of a distant galaxy, which produced the unusual TDE. Scientists have seen a few dim hints of these off-nuclear events, but this is the first to be clearly captured in bright radio waves.
“AT 2024tvd is the first radio-bright, bona fide off-nuclear TDE, and it is also the TDE with the fastest evolution observed to date,” said researchers led by Itai Sfaradi of the University of California, Berkeley.
The team speculate that the black hole might have been gravitationally kicked into the galaxy after a dust-up with other, bigger black holes elsewhere. While that sounds like a tumultuous backstory, at least this black hole was able to grab a stellar bite along the way.
Here be mollusks, worms, and chitons
Meet the newest invertebrates on the deep-ocean block in a study that identified 14 previously unknown species from remote marine regions around the world. These taxonomic newcomers include the carnivorous sombrero-shaped mollusk Myonera aleutiana, the gummy-bear-esque worm Spinther bohnorum, and the aptly nicknamed “tusk shell” (it looks like a tusk) Laevidentalium wiesei.
“Despite centuries of exploration, marine invertebrate biodiversity remains notably under-described,” said researchers with theSenckenberg Ocean Species Alliance (SOSA), an international collaboration that was “founded to help meet this challenge.”
Ferreiraella charazata. Image: Senckenberg Ocean Species Alliance
While all of the newly identified species are fascinating, I have a selfish soft spot for Ferreiraella charazata (no relation to me, or any of the two million Ferreiras in the world). This deep-sea chiton species belongs to a broader genus established by researcher A.J. Ferreira several decades ago.The new Ferreiraella chiton was found in some sunken wood two miles under the sea and is described as having a “very large girdle” and “epibiotic tubeworms on its tail valves,” bringing extra pizazz to the family name.
Old-world solutions to new-world problems
Here’s an out-of-the-box idea to save the environment: Bring back vengeful gods and spirits. In a truly delightful study, scientists explore the benefits of perceived supernatural punishment on the preservation of natural ecosystems with mathematical game theory outlined in the following illustration:
A visual summary of the game theory approach. Image: Shibasaki, Shota et al.
“Japanese folklore includes episodes where spirits of nature (e.g., mountains and trees) punish or avenge people who develop or overuse natural resources,” said researchers led by Shota Shibasaki of Doshisha University. “Similarly, the Batak people of Palawan Island in the Philippines believe in the forest spirits that punish people who overexploit or waste forest resources. Itzá Maya, Guatemala, also views forest spirits as punitively protecting local forests against exploitation.”This is the most galaxy-brained math paper I’ve ever read. Ultimately, the results suggest that “supernatural beliefs could play an important role in achieving sustainability.” So let’s break out the talismans and start casting eco-friendly spells because I, for one, welcome our divine treehugging overlords.
Thanks for reading! See you next week.
Ocean Species Discoveries 13–27 — Taxonomic contributions to the diversity of Polychaeta, Mollusca and Crustacea
Despite centuries of exploration, marine invertebrate biodiversity remains notably under-described. The majority of species in major marine groups are still unnamed, limiting our ability to understand and conserve ecosystems facing rapid environmenta…Senckenberg Ocean Species Alliance (SOSA) (Pensoft Publishers)
The second Global Tipping Points Report warns that the world has crossed a key threshold as ocean heat devastates warm-water reefs.#TheAbstract
Earth’s Climate Has Passed Its First Irreversible Tipping Point and Entered a ‘New Reality’
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Subscribe to 404 Media to get The Abstract, our newsletter about the most exciting and mind-boggling science news and studies of the week.Climate change has pushed warm-water coral reefs past a point of no return, marking the first time a major climate tipping point has been crossed, according to a report released on Sunday by an international team in advance of the United Nations Climate Change Conference COP30 in Brazil this November.
Tipping points include global ice loss, Amazon rainforest loss, and the possible collapse of vital ocean currents. Once crossed, they will trigger self-perpetuating and irreversible changes that will lead to new and unpredictable climate conditions. But the new report also emphasizes progress on positive tipping points, such as the rapid rollout of green technologies.
“We can now say that we have passed the first major climate tipping point,” said Steve Smith, the Tipping Points Research Impact Fellow at the Global Systems Institute and Green Futures Solutions at the University of Exeter, during a media briefing on Tuesday. “But on the plus side,” he added, “we've also passed at least one major positive tipping point in the energy system,” referring to the maturation of solar and wind power technologies.
The world is entering a “new reality” as global temperatures will inevitably overshoot the goal of staying within 1.5°C of pre-industrial averages set by the Paris Climate Agreement in 2015, warns the Global Tipping Points Report 2025, the second iteration of a collaboration focused on key thresholds in Earth’s climate system.
Warm-water corals are rich ecosystems that support a quarter of all marine life and provide food and income to more than a billion people. These vital reefs have experienced “diebacks” for years as rising marine temperatures produce mass-mortality bleaching events. But the severe marine heat waves of 2023 were particularly devastating, and the corals are now reaching their thermal threshold. The report concludes that they are virtually certain to tip toward widespread diebacks, though preventive actions can mitigate the extent of loss and secure small refuges.
“The marine heat wave hit 80 percent of the world's warm-water coral reefs with the worst bleaching event on record,” said Smith. “Their response confirms that we can no longer talk about tipping points as a future risk. The widespread dieback of warm-water coral reefs is already underway, and it's impacting hundreds of millions of people who depend on the reef for fishing, for tourism, for coastal protection, and from rising seas and storm surges.”
The report singled out Caribbean corals as a useful case study given that these ecosystems face a host of pressures, including extreme weather, overfishing, and inadequate sewage and pollution management. These coral diebacks are a disaster not only for the biodiverse inhabitants of the reefs, but also for the many communities who depend on them for food, income, coastal protection, and as a part of cultural identity.
“The Caribbean is in a particularly precarious situation,” Melanie McField, founder and director of the Healthy Reefs for Healthy People Initiative, an NGO operating in the Mesoamerican Reef, told 404 Media during the briefing. "We are very concerned about the Caribbean, but it's actually all of these warm-water reefs. They're all facing the same thing.”
McField added that the actions needed to bolster the corals’ defense against rising temperatures are clear, and include better sewage treatment, the creation of marine preserves, and more strident efforts to tackle overfishing.
“We've been saying the same things,” she said. “We haven't done them. Those are things that are completely in the power of national and local regulators.”
To that end, the report emphasizes that new governmental frameworks and institutions will need to be formed to tackle these problems, because the current system is clearly not up to the task. Avoiding future tipping points will not only require a doubling-down on decarbonization, but also demands major progress toward carbon removal technologies.
“We need to rapidly scale and take seriously the need for sustainable and equitable carbon removal technologies,” said Manjana Milkoreit, a postdoctoral researcher of sociology and human geography at the University of Oslo. “Carbon removal is now the only way to bring global temperatures back down after overshoot—to achieve net negative, not just net zero emissions. That requires serious and sustained investment, starting now.”
“We are currently not preparing for the distinct impacts of tipping points, and we do not have the capacities to address the cascading effects of tipping points,” she concluded. “The key message here is: Do not assume that we already know what to do, or we're already doing everything we can. It's not just more of the same. A different approach to governance is needed.”
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Subscribe to 404 Media to get The Abstract, our newsletter about the most exciting and mind-boggling science news and studies of the week.Resources - Global Tipping Points
Tipping Points Briefing Papers Download the Tipping Points Policy Brief here. Download A positive tipping cascade in power, transport and heating Download the study here.Global Tipping Points
Plus, when did claret get so good and why did Shackleton's ship Endurance sink? Historical updates aplenty.
Plus, when did claret get so good and why did Shackletonx27;s ship Endurance sink? Historical updates aplenty.#TheAbstract
Mole-Rats Could Hold the Key to Living Longer
Welcome back to the Abstract! These are the studies this week that lived long, played hard, crashed out, and topped it off with a glass of claret.First off, it’s Naked Mole-Rat Week! Or at least it should be, given that there are multiple new studies about these rodents, which are neither moles nor rats, but are certifiably naked. Then: dogs on benders; ships on ice; and an aged wine with notes of oak, blackberry, and aggressive trade policy.
The age of Man is over; the time of the Mole-Rat has come
What a whirlwind week it’s been for the naked mole-rat beat, with studies that shed light into the complex social behavior of these burrowing rodents as well as their extreme longevity. Let’s make like a naked mole-rat and dig in!
Naked mole-rats didn’t get the memo about being a normal mammal and instead opted for a “eusocial” society similar to insects that is ruled by a colony queen with an entourage of breeder males, which are supported by a caste system of non-breeding workers. It’s super weird, but it seems to be working out for them because they can live to nearly 40 years old—ten times longer than most animals their size—and they are highly resistant to cancer and a host of other deathbringers.
Scientists took a closer look at the palace intrigue of these rodents by setting up several colonies in laboratory conditions and tracking their movements with microchips. The results revealed that queens are bossy bullies that get so tired from shoving their subjects around that they have to take frequent royal naps.
Different chambers in the experiment. Image: Yamakawa, Masanori et al.
Non-breeding workers, meanwhile, fell into six main “clusters” including cleaners, transport specialists, caretakers, diggers, and a group that just kind of idly loafs around (my spirit mole-rat cluster).“Breeding females patrol burrows and display agonistic dominance toward nonbreeders paralleling queen aggression in primitively eusocial insects,” said Masanori Yamakawa of Kumamoto University. Meanwhile, non-breeding “cluster 1 individuals (high mobility and garbage occupancy) may serve as transport specialists, whereas those in cluster 4 (low mobility and frequent occupancy of nonfunctional chambers) may engage primarily in digging tasks. Cluster 5 individuals, who frequently occupied toilet chambers, may contribute to cleaning-related roles.”
In addition to this window into mole-rat social behavior, a new genetic analysis identified the critical role of an enzyme called cGAS, a common component in animal immune systems, in extending the lives of these subterranean super-agers.
Whereas cGAS may hinder DNA repair in most animals, including humans and mice, the naked mole-rat has evolved a version of the enzyme with four modified amino acids that enhances DNA repair . Naturally, the researchers also engineered some fruit flies with this naked mole rat enzyme—you gotta mess with fruit flies or it’s not science—and lo and behold, the juiced flies lived to about 70 days, roughly ten days longer than the control group.
“Our work provides a molecular basis for how DNA repair is activated to contribute to the exceptional longevity during evolution in naked mole-rats,” said researchers led by Yu Chen of Tongji University in Shanghai. “These findings support the notion that efficient DNA repair decelerates the aging process and raise the possibility that targeting cGAS to enhance DNA repair could provide an intervention strategy for promoting longevity.”
All those past adventurers were looking for the Fountain of Youth in the wrong places; it wasn’t in some beautiful tropical grove, but rather a stanky underground rodent pit.
In non-naked-mole-rat news…
Sit. Stay. Stage an intervention.
Dogs can literally get addicted to the game, according to a study that probed “‘excessive toy motivation” in domestic dogs as “a potential parallel to behavioral addictions in humans.” What this means in practice is that researchers enlisted 105 dogs to play with a lot of really fun toys and about a third of them got totally hooked.
youtube.com/embed/6hDndTOibQs?…
Thirty-three of the playful pooches “exhibited behaviors consistent with addictive-like tendencies including an excessive fixation on toys, reduced responsiveness to alternative stimuli, and persistent efforts to access toys,” said researchers led by Alja Mazzini of the University of Bern. “Dogs [are] the only non-human species so far that appears to develop addictive-like behaviours spontaneously without artificial induction.”A bull terrier during tug-of-war play. Image: Alja Mazzini
While this an interesting scientific conclusion, the study is perhaps most notable for producing delightful footage of dogs in the midst of full-on toy benders. Like all of us who struggle with bad habits and fixations, these dogs will just have to take it one play at a time.The enduring Endurance mystery
Tuhkuri, Jukka. Why did Endurance sink? Polar Record.Endurance, the ship crushed by ice in 1915 during Ernest Shackleton's Antarctic expedition, was actually not all that endurant, according to Jukka Tukuri of Aalto University who concludes in a new study that “Shackleton was well aware of the risks related to the strength of Endurance, but chose to use it anyway.”
“This ship is not as strong as the Nimrod constructionally” wrote Shackleton of Endurance in a letter to his wife in 1914, comparing it to his previous Antarctic ride. “There is nothing to be scared of as I think she will go through ice all right only I would exchange her for the old Nimrod any day now except for comfort.”
You have to love the phrase “there is nothing to be scared of” in a letter from a guy on his way to the South Pole in a rickety ship that is definitely going to sink the following year. I’m sure Mrs. Shackleton was totally comforted by this! Tukuri provides many other fascinating diary entries to support his conclusion that “Endurance was not among the strongest ships of its time.”
The wreck of Endurance. Image: © Falklands Maritime Heritage Trust / National Geographic
That said, Endurance spent more than a century two miles under the Antarctic seas before the wreck was amazingly rediscovered and photographed in 2022. It’s still looking pretty good, even if Shackleton’s decision to set sail in it does not hold up as well.A toast to the 17th century
To fight off that polar chill, let’s warm up for the (North American) long weekend with a really, really aged glass of wine. A new study upends the traditional narrative about the emergence of Bordeaux claret as a desired wine in the 1600s, suggesting it was not strictly developed in response to tariffs (Sike! I used wine to lure you into a disguised tariff story).
“The advent of a stronger, darker style of Bordeaux red wine, known as claret, in the English market has drawn substantial scholarly interest because it played a pivotal role in the balance of trade and international political economy during the eighteenth century,” said author Charlie Leary, a wine historian.
“Economic historians have posited that Bordeaux vignerons developed high-quality, high-priced claret in response to England’s fixed, volume-based tariffs on French wine,” he continued. “This article…shows that the new claret style pre-existed England’s tariff regime.”
With that, cheers to lost years and jeers to economic fears.
Thanks for reading! See you next week.
Addictive-like behavioural traits in pet dogs with extreme motivation for toy play - Scientific Reports
Scientific Reports - Addictive-like behavioural traits in pet dogs with extreme motivation for toy playNature
The vast majority of mice that received the vaccine warded off repeated exposure to cancer cells, but the applications for humans are still not known.#vaccine #science #TheAbstract
A New 'Nanoparticle Vaccine' Prevented Cancer In Mice, Study Says
Scientists have developed a unique nanoparticle vaccine that prevented the development of multiple forms of cancer in mice, reports a study published in Cell Reports Medicine on Thursday.Eighty percent of mice that received the novel vaccine and were subsequently exposed to cancerous cells did not develop tumors and survived to the end of the 250-day long experiment. In contrast, all of the mice that received different vaccine formulations, or remained unvaccinated, developed tumors and none survived longer than 35 days.
It’s too early to know if this breakthrough will ever be applicable to human cancer prevention or treatment, but the successful demonstration in mice is a promising result for the team’s so-called “super-adjuvant” vaccine. This approach uses nanoparticles made of fatty molecules to deliver two distinct “adjuvants,” which are substances in vaccines that enhance an immune response.
“The results that we have are super exciting, and we're really looking forward to pushing forward to the next steps,” said Griffin Kane, a postdoctoral research associate at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and first author on the paper, in a call with 404 Media. “But I think that the translation of these types of therapies from preclinical mouse models to the clinic is a very humbling experience for a lot of people and teams.”
“It’s these highlights that make it worth coming to work,” added Prabhani Atukorale, assistant professor of biomedical engineering in the Riccio College of Engineering at UMass Amherst and corresponding author on the paper, in the same call. “But I agree that the translation of these findings is key. We are not satisfied with simply publishing a paper. We want to get these into patients, and it is a humbling process because there are significant gaps.”
playlist.megaphone.fm?p=TBIEA2…
Scientists have been working on nanoparticle-based drug designs for decades, and the field has experienced rapid progress in recent years alongside advances in nanotechnology and drug delivery pathways. Nanoparticles provide a stable platform for carrying vaccine components to key targets, increasing the efficiency of delivery to specific sites in the body and uptake by the immune system.Atukorale’s team previously published a study on a similar vaccine that shrank and cleared tumors from mice. In their new study, the researchers adapted the nanoparticle design to achieve prophylactic protection from melanoma, pancreatic, and triple-negative breast cancer in mice, with support from the Institute for Applied Life Sciences at UMass Amherst, UMass Chan Medical School, and the National Institutes of Health.
Vaccines consist of two main components: antigens, which are substances that trigger an immune response, and adjuvants, which enhance the immune response. Like other cancer vaccines, the nanoparticle treatment delivers antigens that activate white blood cells in the immune system to help fight off specific types of tumors.
What’s new in this study is that the nanoparticles accommodated two distinct adjuvants that target different immune pathways known as STING (stimulator of interferon genes) and TLR4 (Toll-like receptor 4), which further boosts the immune response to introduced cancer cells.
Adjuvants often require very different drug delivery systems, but the nanoparticles, which are about 30 to 60 nanometers across, are big enough to house different adjuvants in their unique environments, while remaining small enough to enter lymph nodes where they can activate key immune cells.
“The big picture is that we need better adjuvants for our vaccines,” Atukorale said. “We think that we can build them using nanoparticles. This is an example in a tumor.”
One of the most exciting surprises from the study turned out to be the prolonged protection against the spread of cancer provided by the nanoparticle vaccine. The vaccinated mice that did not develop tumors during their first exposure to melanoma cells were then later injected with new metastatic cancer cells, and their immune systems fought those off too, preventing the development and spread of the tumors.
“There's long-term robust memory immunity,” said Kane.
Moreover, while the team focused on certain cancers in their experiment, the nanoparticle platform could deliver a range of specialized antigen-adjuvant combinations to target different types of tumors.
“We think that this is one of the true strengths of these strategies,” said Atukorale. “They will have much broader reach than many of the cancer-specific treatments out there.”
That said, Kane and Atukorale cautioned that their team’s work is still in early stages—and, of course, focused on mice and not people. They also noted that only a handful of cancer vaccines have been clinically approved out of thousands in development. While the new study represents an intriguing step forward, the dream of wide-ranging prophylactic cancer vaccines is many years away, assuming it can materialize at all.
“A lot of very elegant technologies have come out of labs and have not fully succeeded in patients,” Kane said. “We believe that we're building this technology towards something that would improve on what current cancer vaccines are able to deliver.”
Nanoparticles and microparticles for drug and vaccine delivery - PMC
Nanoparticles are polymeric particles in the nanometer size range whereas microparticles are particles in the micrometre size range. Both types of particle are used as drug carriers into which drugs or antigens may be incorporated in the form of ...pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
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Etched from death-defying ledges 12 stories high, vast rock panels of camels and horses preserve the talents of Ice-Age artists in the Arabian desert.#TheAbstract
The Case for Alien Life on Saturn’s Moon Just Got a Boost
Welcome back to the Abstract! Here are the studies this week that defied death, cooked out, bulked up, and capped it off with an extraterrestrial spit-take.First, prehistoric peoples risked their lives to make art—and it was totally worth it. Then, what’s the best cut of a two-ton armadillo? Next, a funerary procession for a whale, a glow-up for a rogue planet, and a swim in an alien ocean.
Finally, I am so excited that my book First Contact: The Story of Our Obsession with Aliens is now officially out! If you are curious about aliens of the Hellenistic world, centuries-old UFO sightings, a guide to the most promising systems for alien life, and the creepiest solutions to the Fermi Paradox (and more), this book is for you.
This rock art rocks
Some 12,000 years ago, a group of desert artists tiptoed out onto dangerous cliff ledges to engrave the rock with enchanting depictions of camels, gazelles, ibex, wild horses, and other animals living in the shifting sands around them. One wrong step could have led to their deaths, but the artists persisted in an act of creative courage.
Now, archaeologists have discovered the monumental rock art left by this bygone culture in the Nafud desert of northern Saudi Arabia. One particularly dramatic scene was engraved from a tiny sloped ledge 12 storeys off the ground, and depicts 23 life-sized camels and horses in a line that stretches horizontally across 75 feet.
Rock art panels at Jebel Arnaan. Image: Maria Guagnin
“Some of these panels were etched onto cliff surfaces in inaccessible but highly visible locations,” said researchers led by Maria Gaugnin of the Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology. “The difficulty in getting to and engraving these rock surfaces, and their enhanced visibility by height, were clearly attractive for the engravers.”Though archeologists typically distinguish between rock art and modern graffiti as distinct traditions, there may be overlaps in their intent and execution—including, in this case, possible attraction to the challenges of accessing a dangerous site.
“The precarious nature of the engraving process is particularly evident in the largest recorded panel,” the team said, referring to the 75-footer described above. “This panel would have been accessed by climbing up a cliff and then engraved while standing on a downward sloping ledge, only ~30-50 centimeters in width,” which is roughly a foot across.
“Today the sandstone is too degraded to reach the ledge safely, and the panel was documented using a drone,” they added.” The friable nature of the substrate and the slope of the narrow ledges suggest the engravers likely risked their lives to create this art.”
The rock ledge where the main panel was engraved. Image: Monumental rock art panel at Jebel Misma (JMI18)
Talk about commitment to the craft. Given the high stakes and the spectacular scale of the panels, this art must have been a cherished touchstone to these early desert peoples. During the ice age, this region was extremely arid and virtually impenetrable, but as the glacial cover receded, oases and other pockets of habitability had opened up to nomads.The rock art proves that these wanderers were not only navigating the terrain, but imprinting their culture and worldview onto it. For countless generations, these grand visions welcomed peoples passing through the desert, serving as a landmark and a cultural heirloom, before they faded into obscurity.
“Freshly engraved against the varnish, the images would have had considerable visual impact,” the team concluded. “The engravings, which may have been created over a time span of millennia, would have reminded people of ancient symbolisms and beliefs of their group, which likely structured their highly seasonal lives and thus enhanced their ability to thrive in these marginal landscapes.”
In other news…
I’m so hungry, I could eat a giant ground sloth
At the same time that the desert artists were engraving cliff walls, people in South America were devouring giant sloths, giant armadillos, mastodons, and other megafauna that have since gone extinct—potentially because they were so tasty.
That’s the upshot of a new study of archaeological sites in Argentina and Chile that date back some 12,000 years to the late Pleistocene period. The results revealed a preference for mega-big game—like beefy ground sloths and car-sized armadillos—bolstering the case that humans may have played a significant role in their extinction.
Megafaunal species were preferred prey for humans in Southern South America. Image: Luciano Prates et al. Megafaunal reconstructions in the figure were provided and authorized by Megafauna 3D Project (megafauna3d.org)
“The late Pleistocene extinction of terrestrial megafauna… is one of the most spectacular changes in American mammal history, and its cause is one of the most hotly debated issues in archaeology and paleoecology,” said researchers led by Luciano Prates of Universidad Nacional de la Plata.“Here, we have shown… that extinct megafauna—at the apex of the prey ranking—were the main prey of early foragers, particularly in regions with high abundance and diversity, such as the Pampas, Patagonia, and central Chile,” the team concluded.
While climate and other factors certainly played a role in these extinctions, there may well be a more obvious culprit [looks at humanity; humanity belches; the belch smells like Pleistocene megafauna].
The world’s saddest version of “Baby Beluga”
“How do animals react to dead or dying conspecifics? Do they comprehend death? Do they grieve? These are the fundamental questions asked in the field of comparative thanatology, which focuses on how animals respond to death.”
Phew, what a heavy lead-in to a study. Nonetheless, a team has now explored these questions with drone observations of beluga whales responding to a dead beluga calf in Hudson Bay near Churchill, Manitoba. The baby may have been a stillborn or perhaps died shortly after birth, as there were no signs of trauma on its body.
Drone footage of the calf. Image: Hudson, Justine M. and Watt, Cortney A.
“We documented 15 instances where belugas from outside of the video frame swam directly towards the dead calf, including 4 mother-calf pairs and 11 individuals,” said Justine Hudson and Cortney Watt of Fisheries and Oceans Canada. “The dead calf was surrounded by free-swimming belugas for the entire duration of the video.”“The dead calf and surrounding belugas were recorded for ~4 min and 17 s before the depleted drone battery required us to land, and we were unable to relocate the calf after changing the batteries,” they added.
Even the battery was too bummed out to endure. But while loss of life is sad, it’s all in a day’s work for a comparative thanatologist.
Rogue planets grow up so fast
The record for most epic bulk-up has been broken by a rogue planet that is gaining an astonishing six billion tonnes of mass per second—an unprecedented rate of swole. The planet, named Cha 1107-7626, is about five to 10 times as massive as Jupiter and does not orbit any star. And why should it? Who needs a star when you’re radiant all by yourself?
Indeed, scientists discovered the world thanks to the light generated by its record growth-spurt, which peaked for at least two months this summer and was still glowing strong when observations stopped in August 2025, showing “the strongest accretion rates measured” in a planet, according to the study.
Artist concept of Cha 1107-7626. Image: ESO/L. Calçada/M. Kornmesser
“These kinds of accretion bursts are key events in the early evolution of stars,” said researchers led by Victor Almendros-Abad of the Astronomical Observatory of Palermo, National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF), Italy. “Our target is the lowest mass object observed thus far that is going through an accretion burst” and provides “a glimpse into the nature of accretion in planetary-mass objects.”A sneak peek of an alien ocean
Shout out to the Enceladus-heads: Scientists have discovered new chemicals in the sea spray of this Saturnian moon that hint at organic processes and hydrothermal activity within its interior ocean, boosting the case that it may be habitable.
In 2008, the NASA-ESA Cassini orbiter gulped some alien seawater as it flew through plumes that erupt from Enceladus’s south pole. Now, scientists have reanalyzed data from one particularly speedy run through the moon sprinkler—during which Cassini reached 40,000 miles per hour—exposing “previously unobserved molecular fragments,” according to a study.
The “freshly ejected” compounds included organic molecules like ethers, ethyls, and partial remnants of what might be larger compounds bearing nitrogen and oxygen, said researchers led by Nozair Khawaja of the University of Berlin. These chemicals hint at “a hydrothermal origin” and “the synthesis and evolution of organics.”
In other words, Enceladus likely has seafloor environments similar to hydrothermal vent systems on Earth, which are hotspots for life. Whether the moon’s vents also have weird creepy crawlies on them is a question that is keeping many of us up at night, so could someone please just send a scuba team there already?
With that, may you enter your weekend with a spritz of fresh organic moon mist.
Thanks for reading! See you next week.
First Contact
A narrative and visual exploration of humanity’s age-old search for and fixation with extraterrestrials.First Contact explores the ancient idea—and epic ...Hachette Book Group
Though they leach toxic chemicals, submerged explosives from World War II attract algae, mussels, and fish in high numbers.#TheAbstract
Humanity’s Toxic Wreckage Is Teeming With Life, Scientists Discover
Welcome back to the Abstract! Here are the studies this week that were lost at sea, lost in time, lost in space, and lost in translation.If you are househunting at the moment, have you considered living on a submerged pile of Nazi munition, or in a charming community of WWI-era ghost ships, or, if you want privacy, maybe a homestead on the Moon? The first studies up this week are all about weird hubs of life here on Earth and perhaps one day off it.
Then, who will serve as general counsel for aliens? Who will feed the megaraptors? And last, the ultimate scientific mystery: what happened to Taylor Swift’s Southern twang?
Who lives in a warhead under the sea?
By the mid-20th century, millions of tons of munitions from both World Wars had been dumped into coastal waters. Now, scientists reveal that these weapons of death have become bustling hubs of life by attracting fish, mollusks, microbes, among other creatures. Footage captured during submersible dives last year shows thriving aquatic communities on war detritus in the Baltic Sea.
“Despite the potential negative effects of the toxic munition compounds, published underwater images show dense populations of algae, hydroids, mussels, and other epifauna on the munition objects, including mines, torpedo heads, bombs, and wooden crates,” said researchers led by Andrey Vedenin of Carl von Ossietzky University. “In this study, for the first time, the composition and structure of epifauna on the surface of marine munitions are described.”
Footage from munitions sites. Image: Vedenin, Andrey et al.
The munitions supported much more life than the surrounding sediment, with an average of around 43,000 organisms per square metre on the munitions compared to about 8,200 organisms on the seafloor. These hotspots were especially interesting given the toxicity levels from the explosive munitions fillings, which often exceeded water quality thresholds for aquatic organisms. (Side note: the authors describe the fillings as “cheesy” due to their texture and yellow color, which made me weirdly hungry for a munitions sandwich).Some species seemed mildly put off by the contamination, including mussels that kept their shells closed at spots with high concentrations. But for the most part, “the high levels of chemical exposure apparently do not prevent the development of a dense epifauna community on the metal shells, fuse pockets, and transport cases centimeters from the explosive filling,” the team found. “The bare explosive, however, remains mostly free from epifauna, even from the Polydora polychaetes that are known to inhabit a vast variety of substrates.”
Wow, you know it’s bad if even Polydora polychaetes won’t touch it. Those worms live on anything but it seems they draw the line at the naked surface of an explosive.
In a separate study, researchers led by Elizabeth White of Duke University used remote-sensing drones to map out 147 shipwrecks in the eerily named “Ghost Fleet of Mallows Bay” in Maryland. These WWI-era ships “have created plentiful wetlands, forests, and aquatic habitats,” according to the study.
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“Sediment collected within wrecks has created ship-shaped islands, allowing both aquatic and terrestrial vegetation to flourish,” the team said. “Birds, such as Osprey, nest within this vegetation and on exposed areas of ships, while aquatic organisms such as the endangered Atlantic sturgeon use the subaqueous wreckage as foraging and nursery grounds.”And there you have it: research about discarded weapons of death and creepy ship graveyards that, somehow, is kind of uplifting.
In other news…
My vacation home is a lunar impact crater
The Moon is a harsh mistress, but the harshness is not evenly distributed. To that end, scientists have scouted out the best lunar real estate for future human habitation based on metrics like temperature, topography, solar illumination, dust activity, water resources, and radiation.
“Lunar resources can provide essential support for establishing permanent lunar habitats, suggesting that the Moon may become humanity’s second home,” said researchers led by Siyan Wang of Tongji University. However, the team added that the Moon does come with some design challenges: for example, “lacking an atmosphere, lunar surface temperatures range annually from –171°C to 111°C.”
Setting aside the absence of standard atmospheric amenities, the new study spotlights three promising sites, all of which are mare plains (low-lying basaltic regions) sheltered within the craters Pytheas, Gambart, and Parry. Great locations, but you’re not going to like the commute.
Take me to your lawyer
Should aliens have inalienable rights? This question has been debated for years (and I explore it in my new book🔌). In a new study, scientists propose establishing a legal framework for aliens quickly, given the frenzied pace of both astrobiology and commercial space development.
“Humanity stands at the threshold of an unprecedented boom in space activity, with planned mining ventures, increased uncrewed and crewed missions, and escalating commercial interest,” said researchers led by Emma Johanna Puranen of the Open University. “This coincides with a ‘golden age’ of astrobiology, where scientists increasingly favour the likelihood of life elsewhere in the universe. We must act now to establish legal and ethical norms for the treatment of extraterrestrial ecosystems before irreversible harm occurs.”
The team models its proposed framework on the influential 1972 treatise “Should Trees Have Standing?” by Christopher Stone. Who knows if we’ll ever actually need a legal system for aliens, but at the very least I hope it inspires a procedural spinoff called CSI: E.T.
Psst…you have crocodile stuck in your teeth
Scientists have discovered fossils of a megaraptor (a dinosaur as cool as it sounds) with the leg bone of a crocodilian right there in its jaws. Though it’s possible that this bone coincidentally slid into the predator’s mouth after it died, we may be looking at a 68-million-year-old version of The Last Supper.
Artist concept of the newly discovered dinosaur Joaquinraptor casali with an ancient crocodile relative’s front leg in its mouth. Image: Andrew McAfee, Carnegie Museum of Natural History via AP
“Here we report a previously unknown megaraptoran genus and species” called Joaquinraptor, which was found in central Patagonia and “is among the most completely represented and latest-surviving megaraptorans,” said researchers led by Lucio Ibiricu of the Patagonian Institute of Geology and Paleontology.“A crocodyliform right humerus…was situated between the closely associated left and right dentaries of the Joaquinraptor holotype, with the apices of several tooth crowns of the megaraptorid in direct contact with the humeral shaft, which also shows potential tooth marks,” the team added. “As such, this discovery may constitute direct evidence regarding prey selection” of megaraptors.
Death is a bummer, but I bet it goes down a lot smoother with a mouthful of croc hot wings.
Dialect Analysis (Taylor’s Version)
I knew this study was trouble when it walked in. Researchers tracked Taylor Swift’s dialect shifts across the eras by logging and analyzing more than 1,400 vowel sounds in interviews and performances spanning her career.
“The results of this study show that Taylor Swift temporarily adopted distinct measurable features of Southern American dialect during her time in Nashville…and these features disappeared upon her relocation to Philadelphia and New York City,” said authors Miski Mohamed and Matthew B. Winn of the University of Minnesota.
Taylor Swift performing during her Eras tour (credit Maura Shapiro) with vocal frequency analysis overlaid (credit: Miski Mohamed and Matthew Winn). Image: Maura Shapiro/Miski Mohamed and Matthew Winn.
The team also discovered that Swift lowered her voice pitch during her NYC years, when she became more outspoken about “The Man” (sexism and creative property rights). They speculate that she may have “intentionally modulated her voice pitch to be lower to signal the seriousness of these themes, and to convey her competence to speak on them with authority.”Or, they add, it could be a natural voice drop “associated with aging through her 20s,” an explanation supported by her own admission that she has this thing where she gets older but just never wiser. Whatever her current accent, let’s hope she shakes it off and leaves a blank space open for new dialects. Look what you made me do; it’s me, hi, I’m the Abstract, it’s me.
Thanks for reading! See you next week.
Sea-dumped munitions in the Baltic Sea support high epifauna abundance and diversity - Communications Earth & Environment
Sea-dumped munitions from the Second World War can provide a habitat for epifauna, according to an analysis of footage from a remotely operated vehicle in the Baltic Sea.Nature
The sudden reduction in the Chandler wobble, a deviation between Earth’s axis and crust, may primarily originate in a powerful La Niña event, reports a new study.#TheAbstract
Earth Was Mysteriously Thrown Off-Kilter In 2015. Now, Scientists Think They Know Why.
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Subscribe to 404 Media to get The Abstract, our newsletter about the most exciting and mind-boggling science news and studies of the week.Have you noticed anything out of whack about Earth since 2015? I’m speaking, of course, about how our planet’s wobble started shrinking that year, a mysterious shift that scientists have been puzzling over ever since.
Now, researchers think they might have an explanation for the sudden decrease in the Chandler wobble (CW), a deviation in Earth's rotational axis relative to its crust that causes a drift of about 20 feet over a cycle of roughly 14 months. The recent off-kilter wobble, known as the CW reduction event, may have been largely sparked by “mass anomalies” after the La Niña of 2010–2011, according to a new study published in Geophysical Research Letters.
That particular La Niña event was one of the strongest on record and it was “followed by significant ocean mass loss due to changed precipitation and evaporation patterns, providing a possible cause of the CW reduction event,” reports the study.
“Polar motion, like the Chandler wobble, reflects changes in Earth’s overall angular momentum,” said study authors Taehwan Jeon and Ki-Weon Seo, a geophysicist and associate professor at Seoul National University, respectively, in a joint email to 404 Media. “Changes in regional mass, and velocity fields of ocean currents and winds can affect the wobble’s amplitude. Because the wobble sums up effects from all over the globe, it is usually hard to tell exactly which region contributed how much.”
“Still, given the scale of the phenomenon, it makes sense that global climate events such as ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) have a stronger influence than small local changes,” the pair continued. “Not every El Niño or La Niña does this, but as our study shows, the 2010-2011 La Niña produced an unusually strong anomaly when viewed from the perspective of Earth’s polar motion.”
The Chandler wobble is one of many wandering deviations between the axis and crust; for instance, we recently covered the effect of impounded dam water on Earth’s rotation. The wobble has also increased and decreased many times in the past in response to shifting global mass distributions, so the latest anomaly isn’t unprecedented.
Still, scientists are curious what might be driving the recent CW reduction, which reached its peak intensity between 2015 and 2020. To approach this mystery, Jeon, Seo, and their colleagues broke the wobble up into two components: the forced wobble and the free wobble.
“The Chandler wobble is actually a two-dimensional pendulum-like motion, but for simplicity it can be compared to a one-dimensional swing,” explained Jeon and Seo. “If you let a swing move without pushing it, it will eventually slow down and stop. That ‘natural’ motion without any external force is what we call the ‘free wobble.’”
“Now imagine giving the swing a push at just the right timing,” they continued. “The swing will keep moving. Depending on how you push, its amplitude can increase or decrease. On Earth, all moving masses (such as air, oceans and water on land) act like those pushes. The part of the wobble driven by these pushes is called the ‘forced wobble.’”
Because the Chandler wobble is the sum of these two parts, the reduction is caused by the free and forced phases cancelling each other out, according to the team’s models. In other words, the study showed that the strong 2010-2011 La Niña event drove the forced wobble out of phase, allowing it to interfere with the free wobble and reduce the overall CW amplitude.
Jeon and Seo said their results “were partly expected and partly surprising.” On the one hand, they noted that oscillations naturally decay over time, so they were expecting to see only recent changes reflected in the Chandler wobble, with ENSO events of the past few decades playing an outsized role in those shifts.
“What surprised us was that not every ENSO event seems to matter, and in particular, the 2010-2011 La Niña turned out to be the strongest contributor,” the pair said. “That was not something we had fully predicted before doing the analysis.”
With that in mind, it’s possible that the Chandler wobble will continue to go haywire in the coming decades, as ENSO events are being amplified by human-driven climate change.
“Large-scale and systematic shifts in Earth’s mass and motion can strongly affect the Chandler wobble, especially when they show a cycle close to the Chandler period (about 433 days), which can resonate more strongly,” Jeon and Seo said.
In particular, the pair pointed to how much ENSO events can disrupt rainfall patterns, which ended up being a main factor in how the 2010–2011 La Niña anomalies impacted on the CW reduction. Changes in global ice mass, however, have more influence over the long-term drift of Earth’s rotation axis, and don’t influence the short-term Chandler wobble as much.
“Since 2010-2011, mass and velocity field changes have continued around the globe, and separating their individual effects remains very challenging,” Jeon and Seo said. “Still, because the Chandler wobble’s amplitude has been increasing again since late 2020, we expect that it may soon return to levels comparable to those observed before 2010.”
“Although the amplitude drop during 2015-2020 was unusual, there were also earlier periods when the Chandler wobble was decreased or increased in amplitude,” the pair concluded. “We suspect that major ENSO events may have played a similar role during those times as well. A next step would be to investigate the broader patterns—what kinds of ENSO events tend to leave a mark on Earth’s polar motion, and what features make them most influential.”
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Subscribe to 404 Media to get The Abstract, our newsletter about the most exciting and mind-boggling science news and studies of the week.Has climate change already affected ENSO?
The swings between El Niño and La Niña have been bigger in recent decades than earlier ones. Our guest blogger covers new research pointing the finger at human-caused climate change.NOAA Climate.gov
An emulator called Effort.jl can drastically reduce computational time without sacrificing accuracy, which could help solve longstanding mysteries about the cosmos.#TheAbstract
A Vast ‘Cosmic Web’ Connects the Universe—Really. Now, We Can Emulate It.
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Subscribe to 404 Media to get The Abstract, our newsletter about the most exciting and mind-boggling science news and studies of the week.You may have noticed that the universe is pretty big—in fact, possibly infinite. These immense scales offer a challenge for scientists who seek to model the “cosmic web,” a network of large-scale structures that link the universe and intersect at nodes where galaxies accumulate into clusters.
That’s why researchers led by Marco Bonici, a cosmologist at the University of Waterloo, have developed an emulator called Effort.jl that can parse cosmic data much faster than traditional models. This approach will accelerate the pace of discoveries about the mysterious cosmic web and help test fundamental theories about the nature of spacetime.
The tool achieves “exceptional computational performance without sacrificing accuracy,” according to the team’s study, which was published last week in the Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics.
“An emulator is a mimic, in a sense,” Bonici said in a call with 404 Media. “It basically lets you do the same kind of analysis that you would do on a supercomputer in a few days of time, in a bunch of hours on your laptop.”
Emulators can imitate the predictions of more complex models by training on their outputs, he added, without getting bogged down in the underlying physics and repetitive calculations.
“Of course, there is a trade-off in precision,” Bonici said. “This is an approximate method. The goal of my study was to show that for some scenarios, we are able to recover the final result of an analysis, even with the emulator. In this way, we can show that the error that we are introducing is negligible.”
The new emulator is designed to probe the Effective Field Theory of Large-Scale Structure (EFTofLSS), a well-corroborated theoretical model of the universe. Bonici first started developing Effort.jl—an abbreviation of “effective field theory surrogate”—during his work on the European Space Agency’s Euclid space telescope, which launched in 2023.
Euclid, along with the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) in Arizona, are producing a flood of exciting new observations about the cosmic web, dark matter, and dark energy that may overturn longstanding assumptions about the universe. Ejjort.jl aims to help interpret these findings more quickly.
Dark matter is an unidentified substance that accounts for most matter in the universe and forms the basis of the cosmic web, while dark energy is the term for whatever the heck is causing the universe to expand at an accelerating rate.
The concept of dark energy dates back to Albert Einstein, who proposed that a “cosmological constant” acts as an anti-gravity force to keep the universe in a static state, preventing it from collapsing under its own gravity. Einstein famously called the constant his “greatest blunder” after Edwin Hubble discovered that the universe was not static, but was rather expanding.
However, the cosmological constant was later repurposed into the standard model of cosmology, also called the Lambda-cold dark matter model (ΛCDM), where Lambda stands for the constant. This constant describes the accelerating expansion of the universe and is now closely associated with dark energy.
This complicated tale now has another exciting twist: DESI’s observations strongly suggest that this constant is not all that constant across the universe’s history. In other words, the effect of dark energy on the universe may change over time, a finding that could upend our basic assumptions about this strange cosmos we inhabit (this seems to happen a lot).
“With DESI’s first data release, we had the first hint that was pointing towards this deviation from the cosmological constant,” Bonici said. “With the second release, that hint was still there.”
“If we have an independent confirmation that this is actually correct, then this will be the first evidence for a behavior beyond the standard model of cosmology,” he continued. “It would be a huge revolution.”
The standard model is still highly accurate in describing cosmic phenomena, but scientists have long wondered about weak spots in its armor, including the unexplained nature of dark matter and dark energy. As Euclid and DESI gather real observations of the cosmic web, these underlying mysteries of our universe will come into sharper focus.
Bonici and his colleagues hope Effort.jl can speed up the process of evaluating the enormous reams of incoming data, acting as a complement to more resource-intensive models that require supercomputers and other expensive and time-consuming approaches.
Though Bonici’s work on the emulator requires a painstaking focus on lines of code, he does occasionally get an opportunity to step back and consider the broad implications of his field. To that end, he recalled that one of his colleagues opened his PhD thesis with the wry observation: “Cosmology is that humble branch of physics which wants to explain the universe as a whole.”
“We are describing literally everything in the universe,” Bonici said. “Most of the time, I just focus on the small details, but when I look at the big picture, to me, it is always exciting to think about, and mind blowing.”
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Subscribe to 404 Media to get The Abstract, our newsletter about the most exciting and mind-boggling science news and studies of the week.
More than 100 artifacts on Turkey’s Aegean coast hints that humans and Neanderthals may have crossed a vanished bridge now submerged beneath the sea.#TheAbstract
A Breakthrough Prehistoric Discovery May Rewrite Early Human History
Welcome back to the Abstract! Here are the studies this week that walked the walk, squeezed with ease, and became immortalized in amber.First, ancient artifacts in Turkey might rewrite the history of early human migrations into Europe. Then: a Cretaceous insectarium, badminton in space, a breakthrough in quantum sensing, and block parties for chimps.
Before we get to that, though, I wanted to share that my book First Contact: The Story of Our Obsession with Aliens is available for preorder and will be out on September 30! It’s a one-stop primer for the diverse meanings of aliens to people, touching on their precursors in myths, their massive footprint in pop culture, our fascination with UFOs, and the real scientific effort to find extraterrestrial life, which is now entering its most exciting phase. If you like the Abstract, I think you’ll enjoy my book, too! To follow updates about First Contact (or my work in general), I also just launched the BeX Files, a personal newsletter to accompany the book.
This bridge is made for walking
Early humans may have walked to Europe on a now-submerged land bridge that stretched across the Aegean Sea from Turkey to mainland Greece hundreds of thousands of years ago during the Pleistocene period, the Ice Age that ended about 12,000 years ago.
The discovery of 138 artifacts at ten sites around Ayvalık in western Turkey provides “the first systematic dataset from a region previously unexplored in the context of Pleistocene archaeology,” according to a new study.
While humans and Neanderthals are known to have entered Europe via the Levant and Balkan regions, the excavation of tools at Ayvalık hints at an entirely new route into the continent for these early explorers of the Paleolithic (the anthropological equivalent to the geological Pleistocene age). During this time, vast glacial ice sheets in the region caused sea levels to drop roughly 330 feet lower than they are today, potentially allowing periodic passage to early humans searching for new horizons.
“These findings reveal a previously undocumented Paleolithic presence and establish Ayvalık as a promising locus for future research on early human dispersals in the northeastern Aegean,” said researchers led by Hande Bulut of Düzce University in Turkey.
The team discovered many flaked stone tools, used as cutting instruments, including objects from the Levallois tradition that dates back 450,000 years and is associated with both Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. For context, Neanderthals were present in Europe many hundreds of thousands of years before Homo sapiens, which arrived within the last 100,000 years, so both groups may have used this land bridge.
It’s difficult to pin down a rough age for these tools because of Ayvalık’s coastal geology, which has basically erased their stratigraphic context. In other words, the region is so dynamic that the tools can’t be linked to a clear geological layer, which is one of the main ways archaeologists establish age estimates.
“While the absence of absolute dates and stratified contexts poses interpretive limitations, the data contribute significantly to our understanding of Paleolithic occupation in western Anatolia and its role in broader Aegean dynamics” and “underscore the region’s potential to contribute to broader debates on Aegean connectivity and technological evolution during the Pleistocene,” the team said.
It’s tantalizing to imagine the journeys of these ancient humans whose ghostly footprints may now lie beneath the Aegean waves.
In other news…
A tableau of a lost world
Paleontologists have discovered beetles, flies, pollen, and spider webs that date back 112 million years and are eerily preserved in amber fossils from Ecuador. Though amber fossils have been found all around the world, these specimens are the first to come from South America, opening a rare window into the insects and plants that lived in the ecosystems of the supercontinent Gondwana.
A fly in the Cretaceous ointment. Image: Mónica Solórzano-Kraemer
“This discovery and the associated plant remains in the amber-bearing rocks, enhance our understanding of the Gondwanan arthropod fauna and flora inhabiting forests along its western margin during a time interval of major ecosystem transformation,” said researchers led by Xavier Delclòs of the University of Barcelona.With their extraordinary detail, amber fossils are like sepia-filtered snapshots of the deep past (and they make great cane ornaments for delusional tycoons too—a thriving market these days!).
The Space Shuttle(cock) program
If humans aspire to live on the Moon or travel to Mars, they’re going to have to avoid being bored out of their gourd for long periods of time. A possible solution: badminton. The sport had positive mental and physical health benefits for participants who spent months in a simulated lunar base in Hawaii, according to a new study.
“These findings underline that badminton, although underexplored in space psychology literature, holds promise as a feasible and beneficial activity for astronauts,” said authors Aagam Jain and Pushpdant Jain of VIT Bhopal University in India.
The authors noted that existing studies on “shuttlecock dynamics” in normal gravity “may inform adaptations for reduced gravity settings.” Badminton in lunar gravity? Can’t wait! The winner is the first to smash the birdie into orbit.
A juice that’s worth the quantum squeeze
Kamba, Mitsuyoshi et al. “Quantum squeezing of a levitated nanomechanical oscillator.” Science.Scientists have demonstrated “quantum squeezing” for the first time with a nanoparticle, a breakthrough that paves the way to “exploring quantum mechanics at a macroscopic scale,” according to a new study.
Quantum squeezing sounds like a cuddle party for atoms, but it is actually a way for scientists to navigate the pesky quantum world, where simply observing phenomena can influence results. Quantum “squeezers” get around uncertainties by enhancing precision measurements of one property, such as a particle’s position, in exchange for losing precision of another, like its velocity.
Though quantum squeezing has been achieved in the laboratory many times, a team has now applied it to a nanoscale glass particle, which is a big object for the quantum world. The glass was trapped in laser light and chilled down to near its lowest-energy state, allowing for precision measurements through squeezing while it levitated.
“My sugarboo, I'm levitatin’” (nanoparticle getting quantum squeezed). Image: Kamba et al 2025
“Manipulating the motion of macroscopic objects near their quantum mechanical uncertainties has been desired in diverse fields, including fundamental physics, sensing, and transducers,” said researchers led by Mitsuyoshi Kamba of the University of Tokyo. “Our work shows that a levitated nanoparticle offers an ideal platform.”An update on chimp sangria
Maro, Alexey et al. “Ethanol ingestion via frugivory in wild chimpanzees.” Science Advances.Wild chimpanzees may be consuming up to two standard alcoholic beverages a day, a finding that suggests an attraction to alcohol in primates has deep evolutionary roots. While it’s well-established that chimps devour these fruity librations—see our past story on chimp sangria—scientists have now measured the ethanol (alcohol) content of these fruits for the first time during field observations of wild chimps in Uganda and Côte d'Ivoire.
How many fermented figs can you fit in your mouth at once? Chimpanzees observed in Côte d'Ivoire. Image: Aleksey Maro/UC Berkeley
“Chimpanzees typically eat ~4.5 kilograms of fruit per day” which is a full ten pounds and corresponds to “the equivalent of 1.4 (±0.9) standard drinks,” said researchers led by Alexey Maro of the University of California, Berkeley. The results support the “drunken monkey” hypothesis that suggests hominid ancestors of chimps and humans adapted to drinking alcohol tens of millions of years ago.In addition to confirming this shared compulsion to imbibe, the researchers also observed some interesting behaviors at these boozy chimp gatherings. Fermented figs “attract large groups of chimpanzees,” they note “which in turn results in increased social interactions for both sexes and in social activities such as territorial boundary patrols and hunts.”
Thanks for reading! See you next week.
This Sicko Caterpillar Wears the Bones of Its Victims
Bite marks on the pelvis of a beheaded man provide the first direct physical evidence of human-animal gladiatorial combat.Becky Ferreira (404 Media)
Strange “leopard spots” on Mars are the most promising signs of alien life on the planet yet, but they could also have a geological origin.#TheAbstract
NASA Rover Finds ‘Potential Biosignature’ on Mars
Welcome back to the Abstract! These are the studies this week that broke ice, broke hearts, and broke out the libations. Also, if you haven’t seen it already, we just covered an amazing breakthrough in our understanding of the cosmos, which is as much a story about humanity’s endless capacity for ingenuity as it is about the wondrous nature of black holes.Microbes on ice
Scientists have discovered Arctic algae moving around with ease in icy environments of -15°C (5°F)—the lowest temperatures ever recorded for motility in a eukaryotic lifeform. While some simple microbes can survive lower temperatures, this is the first time that scientists have seen eukaryotic life—organisms with more complex cells containing a nucleus—able to live, thrive, and locomote in such chilly environments.
It’s amazing that these so-called “ice diatoms” can move around at all, but it’s even cooler that they do it in style with a gliding mechanism that researchers describe as a “‘skating’ ability.” Their secret weapon? Mucus threads (“mucilage”) that they use like anchors to pull themselves through frozen substrates.
“The unique ability of ice diatoms to glide on ice” enables them “to thrive in conditions that immobilize other marine diatoms,” said researchers led by Qing Zhang of Stanford University.
An Arctic diatom, showing the actin filaments that run down its middle and enable its skating motion. Image: Prakash Lab
Zhang and her colleagues made this discovery by collecting ice cores from 12 locations around the Arctic Chukchi Sea during a 2023 expedition on the research vessel Sikuliaq, which is owned by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and operated by the University of Alaska Fairbanks. Unfortunately, this is a research area that could be destroyed by the Trump administration, with NSF facing 70 percent cuts to its polar research budget.In other news…
How did Mars get its leopard spots?
If lifeforms are doing triple axels in Arctic ice on Earth, it’s natural to wonder whether alien organisms may have emerged elsewhere. To that end, scientists announced the discovery of a tantalizing hint of possible life on Mars this week.
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NASA’s Perseverance rover turned up organic carbon-bearing mudstones that preserve past redox reactions, which involves the transfer of electrons between substances resulting in one being “reduced” (gaining electrons) and one being “oxidized” (losing electrons). The remnants of those reactions look like “leopard spots” in the Bright Angel formation of Jezero Crater, where the rover landed in 2021, according to the study.The “leopard spots” at Bright Angel. Image: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
This is not slam-dunk evidence of life, as the reactions can be geological in origin, but they “warrant consideration as ‘potential biosignatures.”“This assessment is further supported by the geological context of the Bright Angel formation, which indicates that it is sedimentary in origin and deposited from water under habitable conditions,” said researchers led by Joel Hurowitz of Stony Brook University.
The team added that the best way to confirm the origin of the ambiguous structures is to bring Perseverance’s samples back to Earth for further study as part of the Mars Sample Return (MSR) program. Unfortunately, the Trump administration wants to cancel MSR. It seems that even when we have nice things, we still can’t have nice things, a paradox that we all must navigate together.
The last flight of Lucky and Lucky II
About 150 million years ago, a pair of tiny pterodactyls—just days or weeks old—were trying to fly through a cataclysmic storm. But the wind was strong enough to break the bones of their baby wings, consigning them to a watery grave in the lagoon below.
Now, scientists describe how the very storm that cut their lives short also set them up for a long afterlife as exquisitely preserved fossils, nicknamed Lucky and Lucky II, in Germany's Solnhofen limestone.
Fossils of Lucky II. Image: University of Leicester
“Storms caused these pterosaurs to drown and rapidly descend to the bottom of the water column, where they were quickly buried in storm-generated sediments, preserving both their skeletal integrity and soft tissues,” said researchers led by Robert Smyth of the University of Leicester.“This catastrophic taphonomic pathway, triggered by storm events, was likely the principal mechanism by which small- to medium-sized pterodactyloids…entered the Solnhofen assemblage,” they added.
While it’s sad that these poor babies had such short lives, it’s astonishing that such a clear cause of death can be established 150 million years later. Rest in peace, Lucky and Lucky II.
Trump’s aid cuts could cause millions of deaths from tuberculosis alone
The Trump administration’s gutting of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), carried out in public fashion by Elon Musk and DOGE, will likely cause millions of excess deaths from tuberculosis (TB) by 2030, reports a sobering new study.
“Termination of US funding could result in an estimated 10.6 million additional TB cases and 2.2 million additional TB deaths during the period 2025–2030,” said researchers led by Sandip Mandal of the Center for Modeling and Analysis at Avenir Health. “The loss of U.S. funding endangers global TB control efforts” and “potentially puts millions of lives at risk.”
Beyond TB, the overall death toll from the loss of USAID is estimated to reach 14 million deaths by 2030. The destruction of USAID must never be memory-holed as it is shaping up to be among the most deadly actions ever enacted by a government outside of war.
Small microbes with big impacts
In more bad news, it turns out that the bacteria that’s responsible for making a lot of Earth’s oxygen is highly vulnerable to human-driven climate change. Prochlorococcus, the most abundant photosynthetic organism on Earth, is the source of about 20 percent of the oxygen in our biosphere. But rapidly warming seas could set off “a possible 17–51 percent reduction in Prochlorococcus production in tropical oceans,” according to a new study.
“Prochlorococcus division rates appear primarily determined by temperature, increasing exponentially to 28°C, then sharply declining,” said researchers led by François Ribalet of the University of Washington. “Regional surface water temperatures may exceed this range by the end of the century under both moderate and high warming scenarios.”
It’s possible that this vital bacteria will adapt by moving to higher latitudes or by evolving more heat-tolerant variants. But that seems like a big gamble on something as important as Earth’s oxygen budget.
Last, we feast
We are far from the first generation to live through unstable times, as evidenced by a new study about the “climatic change and economic upheaval” in Britain during the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age about 3,000 years ago.
These disruptions were traumatic, but they also galvanized new modes of community connection—a.k.a epic parties where people ate, drank, made merry, and dumped the remnants of their revelry in trashpiles called “middens.”
East Chisenbury midden under excavation. Image: Cardiff University
“These vast mounds of cultural debris represent the coming together of vast numbers of people and animals for feasts on a scale unparalleled in British prehistory,” said researchers led by Carmen Esposito of Cardiff University. “This study, the largest multi-isotope faunal dataset yet delivered in archaeology, has demonstrated that, despite their structural similarities, middens had diverse roles.”"Given the proximity of all middens to rivers, it is likely that waterways played a role in the movement of people, objects and livestock,” the team added. “Overall, the research points to the dynamic networks that were anchored on feasting events during this period and the different, perhaps complementary, roles that different middens had at the Bronze Age-Iron Age transition.”
When in doubt—then as now—have a big party.
Thanks for reading! See you next week.
“We had promised that gravitational waves would open a new window into the universe, and that has materialized,” one researcher said.”#TheAbstract
Scientists Just Got an Unprecedented Glimpse into the Nature of Reality
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Subscribe to 404 Media to get The Abstract, our newsletter about the most exciting and mind-boggling science news and studies of the week.Scientists have captured the clearest ever gravitational waves—ripples in the fabric of spacetime—a breakthrough that has resolved decades-old mysteries about black holes and the nature of our reality, according to a study published on Wednesday in Physical Review Letters.
Gravitational waves forged by an ancient merger between two massive black holes reached Earth on January 14 of this year, where they were picked up by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) located in Washington and Louisiana. LIGO has discovered hundreds of these waves, but the January event, known as GW250114, is the cleanest detection ever made with a signal-to-noise ratio of 80 (meaning that the signal is about 80 times louder than the noise).
The unprecedented clarity allowed scientists to confirm predictions about black holes that were made a half-century ago by pioneering theorists Roy Kerr and Stephen Hawking, known respectively as the Kerr metric and Hawking area theorem. According to the new study, the results represent “a milestone in the decade-long history of gravitational wave science,” a field that was born in 2015 with the historic first detection of these elusive waves.
“We had promised that gravitational waves would open a new window into the universe, and that has materialized,” said Maximiliano Isi, a gravitational-wave astrophysicist and assistant professor at Columbia University and the Flatiron Institute who co-led the study, in a call with 404 Media.
“Over the past 10 years, the instruments have continued to improve,” added Isi. “We are at a point now where we are detecting a collision of black holes every other day or so. That said, this one detection, which has an extremely high signal-to-noise ratio, really drives home how far this field has come along.”
Gravitational waves are subtle ripples in spacetime that are produced by energetic cosmic events, such as supernovas or mergers between black holes. Albert Einstein was the first to predict their existence in his 1916 general theory of relativity, though he was doubtful humans could ever develop technologies sensitive enough to detect them.
These waves oscillate at tiny distances that are thousands of times smaller than the width of a proton. To capture them, LIGO’s detectors shoot lasers across corridors that stretch for 2.5 miles and act like ultra-sensitive tripwires. The advent of gravitational wave astronomy earned the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2017 and marked the dawn of "multimessenger astronomy,” in which observations about the universe can emerge from different sources beyond light.
GW250114 has a lot in common with that inaugural gravitational wave signal detected in 2015; both signals came from mergers between black holes that are about 30 times as massive as the Sun with relatively slow spins. Gravitational wave astronomy has revealed that black holes often fall into this mass range for reasons that remain unexplained, but the similarity of the 2015 and 2025 events throws the technological progress of LIGO into sharp relief.
“Every pair of black holes is different, but this one is almost an exact twin” to the first detection, Isi said. “It really allows for an apples-to-apples comparison. The new signal is detected with around four times more fidelity, more clarity, and less relative noise than the previous one. Even though, intrinsically, the signal is equally powerful to the first one, it's so much neater and we can see so much more detail. This has been made possible by painstaking work on the instrument.”
The high quality of the signal enabled Isi and his colleagues to test a prediction about black holes proposed by mathematician Roy Kerr in 1963. Kerr suggested that black holes are simple astrophysical objects that can be boiled down to just two properties: mass and spin. GW250114 was clear enough to produce precise measurements of the “ringdown” signatures of the merging black holes as they coalesced into a single remnant, which is a pattern akin to the sound waves from a ringing bell. These measurements confirmed Kerr’s early insight about the nature of these strange objects.
An illustration of the two tones, including a rare, fleeting overtone used to test the Kerr metric. Image: Simons Foundation.
“Because we see it so clearly for the first time, we see this ringing for an extended period where there is an equivocal, clear signature that this is coming from the final black hole,” explained Isi. “We can identify and isolate this ringing from the final black hole and tease out that there are two modes of oscillation.”“It's like having two tuning forks that are vibrating at the same time with slightly different pitches,” he continued. “We can identify those two tones and check that they're both consistent with a single mass and spin. This is the most direct way we have of checking if the black holes out there are really conforming to the mathematical idealization that we expect in general relativity—through Kerr.”
In addition to confirming Kerr’s prediction, GW250114 also validated Stephen Hawking’s 1971 prediction that the surface area of a black hole could only increase, known as Hawking's area theorem. Before they merged, the black holes were each about 33 times as massive as the Sun, and the final remnant was about 63 solar masses (the remaining mass was emitted as energy in the form of gravitational waves). Crucially, however, the final remnant’s surface area was bigger than the combined sum of the areas of the black holes that created it, confirming the area theorem.
“We are in an era of experimental gravitation,” said Isi. “We can study space and time in these dynamically crazy configurations, observationally. That is really amazing for a field that has, for decades, just worked on pure mathematical abstraction. We are hunting these things with reality.”
The much-anticipated confirmation of these predictions puts constraints on some of the most intractable problems in physics, including how the laws of general relativity—which governs cosmic scales of stars and galaxies—can coexist with the very different laws that rule the tiny quantum scales of atoms.
Scientists hope more answers can be revealed by increasingly sophisticated detections from observatories like LIGO and Virgo in Italy, along with future projects like the European Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA), due for launch in the 2030s. Despite LIGO’s massive contribution to science, the Trump administration has proposed big cuts to the observatory and a possible closure to one of its detectors, which would be a major setback.
Regardless of how the field develops in the future, the new discovery demonstrates that the efforts of generations of scientists are now coming to fruition with startling clarity.
“It is humbling to be inscribed in this long tradition,” Isi said. “Of course, Einstein never expected that gravitational waves would be detected. It was a ludicrous idea. Many people didn't think it would ever happen, even right up to 2015. It is thanks to the vision and grit of those early scientists who fully committed despite how crazy it sounded.”
“I hope that support for this type of research is maintained, that I'll be talking to you in 10 years, and I will tell you: ‘Wow, we had no idea what spacetime was like,’” he concluded. “Maybe this is just the beginning.”
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Iberian harvester ant queens clone males of a different species in a never-before-seen case of reproduction and domestication.#TheAbstract
The Biological Rulebook Was Just Rewritten—by Ants
Welcome back to the Abstract! Here are the studies this week that transgressed the rules, explored extraterrestrial vistas, and went with the flow.First, ants are doing really strange things again. I don’t even want to spoil it—you’ll just have to read on! Then, plan your trip to the latest hot exoplanet destination (literally, in the case of the lava planets), and check out Saturn’s new bling on the way. Lastly, all aboard on a trip to the riverboats of the past.
Same mama, different species
Scientists have discovered a gnarly reproductive strategy that is unlike anything ever documented in nature: Ant queens that produce offspring from two entirely different species by cloning the “alien genome” of males from another lineage. This unique behavior has been dubbed “xenoparity,” according to a new study.
Researchers were first tipped off to this bizarre adaptation after they kept finding builder harvester ants (Messor structor) in the colonies of Iberian harvester ants (Messor ibericus). Field and laboratory observations revealed that, in addition to mating with males of their own species, M. ibericus queens mate with M structor. The queens store and clone this sperm to produce hybrids with M. structor genomes and M. ibericus mitochondria. Even though these two ant species diverged five million years ago and don’t share the exact same range, the queens rely on M. structor males exclusively for its worker caste, suggesting a “domestication-like process,” the study reports.
“Living organisms are assumed to produce same-species offspring,” said researchers co-led by Y. Juvé, C. Lutrat, and A. Ha of the University of Montpellier. “Here, we report that this rule has been transgressed by Messor ibericus ants, with females producing individuals from two different species.”
“M. ibericus queens strictly depend on males of M. structor, which is a well-differentiated, non-sister species,” the team added. “To our knowledge, females needing to clone members of another species have not previously been observed.”
youtube.com/embed/H-Y6-j8FlIQ?…
Iberian harvester queens only produce females when they mate within their own species, which may have prompted this cross-species adaptation. By producing cloned M. structor males, the queens ensure the continuation of a worker caste as well as a supply of male mates for later generations of queens.“At the intraspecific level, several cases of ants cloning males from their own species’ sperm have been observed,” the researchers noted. “Here, our results imply that this phenomenon has crossed species barriers.”
“Taken together, these results further support the idea that clonal males should be characterized as a domesticated lineage of M. structor,” they continued. “Although matching all criteria of domestication, the relationship we describe is both more intimate and integrated than the most remarkable examples known so far.”
What’s next, dogs giving birth to whales? Probably not, but still, these transgressive queens have rewritten the reproductive rulebook in a truly astonishing way.
In other news…
Vacationing really far abroad
In 2015, NASA released a bunch of splashy retro posters that imagined exoplanets as travel destinations, as part of a collaborative project between scientists and artists. A new study dissects the huge success of that campaign, which engaged the public in the burgeoning field of exoplanet research and helped scientists visualize their distant observational targets.
Exoplanet posters. Image: NASAThe Exoplanet Travel Bureau posters “were not images designed to be understood by the public as objectively ‘real’ or ‘scientific’, yet they were still scientifically informed,” said author Ceridwen Dovey of Macquarie University. “As tourism posters proposing travel to extremely distant exoplanets, they were not pretending to be direct images of astronomical objects, yet they were also not pure speculation or fantasy. They sat very comfortably—and alluringly—somewhere in between.”
There’s always a fine line to tread when depicting alien exoplanets, given how little we know about what it is really like on these distant worlds. But since interstellar travel does not seem to be coming anytime soon, the NASA posters served as a powerful imaginative stopgap for thinking about these new worlds—even if their amenities remain unknown.
Saturn has ‘strange dark arms’ and beads to match its rings
The James Webb Space Telescope is most famous for peering farther back in space and time than ever before, revealing amazing insights about the early universe. But JWST is also shedding light on planets right in our own backyard, as evidenced by a new study about “dark beads” and “strange dark arms” that showed up in its observations of Saturn.
These features arise from Saturn's stratosphere and ionosphere, which were captured in "unprecedented detail” by JWST’s near-infrared instruments. The “arms” are methane-gas structures that extend down from the poles toward the equator while the beads emerge “in a variety of sizes and shapes” on one side of the ionosphere.
“This stratospheric structure is again unlike anything previously observed at other planets,” said researchers led by Tom Stallard of Northumbria University. “While we do not understand how or why these dark arms are generated, it is perhaps noteworthy that they occur in a region where the underlying atmosphere is also disturbed, suggesting this stratospheric layer might be influenced from below.”
Given its famous rings and now its beads, my prediction is that they will discover a bedazzled bangle on Saturn next.
Up history’s creek without a paddle
Rivers are often employed as metaphors for the passage of time into the future, but a new study is paddling upstream into the past. The goal was to reconstruct the navigability of rivers in ancient times, which is important information for understanding past trade networks, migrations, and social connections. However, it is difficult to pinpoint how ancient peoples traversed these waterways using only archeological sites and historical documents.
“The very notion of a navigable river seems problematic, as the possibilities for navigation on a river are highly dependent on the section considered, the type of boat, the climate and seasonal cycles,” said researchers led by Clara Filet of the Bordeaux Montaigne University.
To address this gap, the researchers developed an algorithm that searched for flat and calm stretches of a river, called “plain sections.” They tested out their approach on dozens of rivers used by cultures in ancient Gaul and Roman and concluded that it “provides a good approximation of navigable sections.”
“Applying this method offers a new perspective on navigable areas in the Roman world, providing a reasonable first guess that could guide future empirical research into the navigability of ancient rivers,” the team concluded.
Thanks for reading! See you next week.
One mother for two species via obligate cross-species cloning in ants - Nature
In a case of obligate cross-species cloning, female ants of Messor ibericus need to clone males of Messor structor to obtain sperm for producing the worker caste, resulting in males from the same mother having distinct genomes and morphologies.Nature
Glaciers in Central Asia have remained intact even as other parts of the world have seen rapid glacial loss. A new study shows that may be changing.#TheAbstract
They Were Some of Earth’s Last Stable Glaciers. Now, They’re Melting.
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Subscribe to 404 Media to get The Abstract, our newsletter about the most exciting and mind-boggling science news and studies of the week.Scientists have long been puzzled by the sturdy glaciers of the mountains of central Asia, which have inexplicably remained intact even as other glaciers around the world rapidly recede due to human-driven climate change. This mysterious resilience may be coming to an end, however.
The glaciers in this mountainous region—nicknamed the “Third Pole” because it boasts more ice than any place outside of the Arctic and Antarctic polar caps— have passed a tipping point that could set them on a path to accelerated mass loss, according to a new study. The end of this unusual glacial resilience, known as the Pamir-Karakoram Anomaly, would have major implications for the people who rely on the glaciers for water.
Scientists suggested that a recent decline in snowfall to the region is behind the shift, but it will take much more research to untangle the complicated dynamics of these remote and under-studied glaciers, according to a study published on Tuesday in Communications Earth & Environment.
“We have known about this anomaly since the early 2000s,” said study co-author Francesca Pellicciotti, a professor at the Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA), in a call with 404 Media. “In the last 25 years, remote-sensing has really revolutionized Earth sciences in general, and also cryospheric sciences.”
“There is no definite answer yet for why those glaciers were quite stable,” said Achille Jouberton, a PhD student at ISTA who led the study, in the same call. “On average, at the regional scale, they were doing quite well in the last decade—until recently, which is what our study is showing.”
This space-down view of the world’s glaciers initially revealed the resilience of ice and snowpack in the Pamir-Karakoram region, but that picture started to change around 2018. Many of these glaciers have remained inaccessible to scientists due to political instabilities and other factors, leaving a multi-decade gap in the research about their curious strength.
To get a closer look, Jouberton and his colleagues established a site for monitoring snowfall, precipitation, and water resources at Kyzylsu Glacier in central Tajikistan in 2021. In addition to this fieldwork, the team developed sophisticated models to reconstruct changes within this catchment since 1999.
While the glaciers still look robust from the outside, the results revealed that snowfall has decreased and ice melt has increased. These interlinked trends have become more pronounced over the past seven years and were corroborated by conversations with locals. The decline in precipitation has made the glacier vulnerable to summer melting, as there is less snowpack to protect it from the heat.
“It will take a while before these glaciers start looking wasted, like the glaciers of the Alps, or North America, or South America,” said Pellicciotti.
While the team pinpointed a lack of snowfall as a key driver of the shift, it’s unclear why the region is experiencing reduced precipitation. The researchers are also unsure if a permanent threshold has been crossed, or if these changes could be chalked up to natural variation. They hope that the study, which is the first to warn of this possible tipping point, will inspire climate scientists, atmospheric scientists, and other interdisciplinary researchers to weigh in on future work.
“We don't know if this is just an inflection in the natural cycle, or if it's really the beginning of a trend that will go on for many years,” said Pellicciotti. “So we need to expand these findings, and extend them to a much longer period in the past and in the future.”
Resolving these uncertainties will be critical for communities in this region that rely on healthy snowpack and ice cover for their water supply. It also hints that even the last stalwart glacial holdouts on Earth are vulnerable to climate change.
“The major rivers are fed by snow and glacier melts, which are the dominant source of water in the summer months, which makes the glaciers very important,” concluded Jouberton. "There’s a large amount of people living downstream in all of the Central Asian countries that are really direct beneficiaries of those water and meltwater from the glaciers.”
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Subscribe to 404 Media to get The Abstract, our newsletter about the most exciting and mind-boggling science news and studies of the week.Snowfall decrease in recent years undermines glacier health and meltwater resources in the Northwestern Pamirs - Communications Earth & Environment
The recent decline in glacier health and reduced runoff generation in the Northwestern Pamirs is primarily driven by substantially lower snowfall and snow depth since 2018, according to land-surface model reconstructions from 1999–2023 combining in-s…Nature
The world’s best solar telescope snapped unprecedented shots of a solar flare, revealing new details of these mysterious explosions.#TheAbstract
This Stunning Image of the Sun Could Unlock Mysterious Physics
Welcome back to the Abstract! What an extreme week it has been in science. We’ve got extreme adaptations and observations to spare today, so get ready for a visually spectacular tour of deep seas, deep time, and deep space.First up, a study with an instant dopamine hit of a title: “Extreme armour in the world’s oldest ankylosaur.” Then, stories about two very different marine creatures that nonetheless share a penchant for brilliant outfits and toxic lifestyles; a baby picture that requires a 430-light-year zoom-in; and lastly, we must once again salute the Sun in all its roiling glory. Enjoy the peer-reviewed eye-candy!
Ankylosaurs: Swole from the start
Maidment, Susannah et al. “Extreme armour in the world’s oldest ankylosaur.” Nature.
Paleontologists have discovered an ankylosaur that is epic even by the high standards set by this family of giant walking tanks. Partial remains of Spicomellus—the oldest known ankylosaur, dating back 165 million years—reveal that the dinosaur had much more elaborate body armor than later generations, including a collar of bony spikes up to three feet long, and fused tail vertebrae indicating an early tail weapon.
Ankylosaurs are known for their short-limbed frames, clubbed tail weapons, and thick-plated body armor that puts Batman to shame. These dinosaurs, which could reach 30 feet from beak to club, are mostly known from Late Cretaceous fossils. As a consequence “their early evolution in the Early–Middle Jurassic is shrouded in mystery due to a poor fossil record” and “the evolution of their unusual body plan is effectively undocumented,” according to a new study.
“Bring it.” Concept art of Spicomellus. Image: © Matthew Dempsey
In October 2022, a local farmer in the Moroccan badlands discovered a partial skeleton that fills in this tantalizing gap. The fossils suggest that the plates, spikes, and weaponized tails were features of ankylosaurian anatomy from the Jurassic jump.“The new specimen reveals extreme dermal armour modifications unlike those of any other vertebrate, extinct or extant,” said researchers led by Susannah Maidment of the National History Museum in London. “Given that Spicomellus is an early-diverging ankylosaur or ankylosaurid, this raises the possibility that ankylosaurs acquired this extravagant armour early in their evolutionary history, and this was reduced to a simpler arrangement in later forms.”
The Spicomellus puzzle set. Image: © Matthew Dempsey/ Maidment et al.
As you can see, this early ankylosaur was the living embodiment of the phrase “try me.” Two huge spikes, one of which is almost entirely preserved, flanked the “cervical half-ring” on the animal's neck. The fossils are so visually astonishing that at first glance, they almost look like an arsenal of spears, axes, and clubs from an ancient army.The team doesn’t hide their amazement at the find, writing that “no known ankylosaur possesses any condition close to the extremely long pairs of spines on the cervical half-ring” and note that the fossils overturn “current understanding of tail club evolution in ankylosaurs, as these structures were previously thought to have evolved only in the Early Cretaceous.”
This incredible armor may have initially evolved as a sexual display that was adapted for defensive purposes by the rise of “multitonne predators” like T. rex. That might explain why the ornaments seemed to have simplified over time. Whatever the reason, the fossils demonstrate that ankylosaurs, as a lineage, were born ready for a fight.
In other news…
Now you sea(horse) me
We’ll move now from the extremely epic to the extremely twee. Pygmy seahorses, which measure no more than an inch, mimic the brightly-colored and venomous gorgonian corals that they symbiotically inhabit. Scientists have now discovered that these tiny animals achieved their extraordinary camouflage in part by discarding a host of genes involved in growth and immune response, perhaps because their protective coral habitats rendered those traits obsolete.
Basically we are very smol. Image: South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences
“We analyzed the tiny seahorse’s genome revealing the genomic bases of several adaptations to their mutualistic life,” said researchers led by Meng Qu of the South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences. The analysis suggests “that the protective function of corals may have permitted the pygmy seahorse to lose an exceptionally large number of immune genes.”Living in a toxic environment can have its benefits, if you’re a seahorse. And that is the perfect segue to the next story…
When life hands you arsenic, make lemon-colored skin
After a long day, isn’t it nice to sink into a scalding bath of arsenic and hydrogen sulfide? That’s the self-care routine for Paralvinella hessleri, a deep sea worm that “is the only animal that colonizes the hottest part of deep-sea hydrothermal vents in the west pacific,” according to a new study.
Paralvinella hessleri. Wang H, et al., 2025, PLOS Biology, CC-BY 4.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)
So, how are these weirdos surviving what should be lethally toxic waters that exceed temperatures of 120°F? The answer is a "distinctive strategy” of “fighting poison with poison,” said researchers led by Hao Wang of the Center of Deep-Sea Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences. The worm stores the arsenic in its skin cells and mixes it with the sulfide to make a dazzling mineral, called orpiment, that provides its bright yellow hue.“This process represents a remarkable adaptation to extreme chemical environments,” the researchers said. “The yellow granules observed within P. hessleri’s epithelial cells, which are the site of arsenic detoxification, appear to be the key to this adaptation.”
My own hypothesis is that this worm offers an example of convergent evolution with Freddie Mercury’s yellow jacket from Queen’s legendary 1986 Wembley Stadium performance.
Mind the protoplanetary gap
Your baby photos are cute and all, but it’s going to be hard to top the pic that astronomers just snapped of a newborn planet 430 light years from Earth. This image marks the first time that a planet has been spotted forming within a protoplanetary disk, which is the dusty gassy material from which new worlds are born.
The protoplanet WISPIT 2b appears as a purple dot in a dust-free gap. Image: Laird Close, University of Arizona
Our “images of 2025 April 13 and April 16 discovered an accreting protoplanet,” said researchers led by Laird Close of the University of Arizona. “The ‘protoplanet’ called WISPIT 2b “appears to be clearing a dust-free gap between the two bright rings of dust—as long predicted by theory.”If Earth is the pale blue dot, then WISPIT 2b is the funky purple blob. Though stray baby planets have been imaged before in the cavity between their host stars and the young disks, this amazing image offers the first glimpse of the most common mode of planetary formation, which occurs inside the dusty maelstrom.
Welcome to the Arcade of Coronal Loops
We’ll close with yet another cosmic photoshoot—this time of everyone’s favorite star, the Sun. from the Daniel K Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST) in Hawaii. The telescope captured unprecedented pictures of a decaying solar flare at a key hydrogen-alpha (Hα) wavelength of 656.28 nanometers.
The images show coronal loops—dramatic plasma arches that can spark flares and ejections—at resolutions of just 13 miles, making them the smallest loops that have ever been observationally resolved. The pictures are mesmerizing, filled with sharp features like the “Arcade of Coronal Loops” (and note that the scale is measured in planet Earths) But they also represent a new phase in unlocking the mysterious physics that fuels solar flares and coronal mass ejections.
“This is initial evidence that the DKIST may be capable of resolving the fundamental scale of coronal loops,” said researchers led by Cole Tamburri of the University of Colorado Boulder. “The resolving power of the DKIST represents a significant step toward advancing modern flare models and our understanding of fine structure in the coronal magnetic field.”
May your weekend be as energetic as a coronal loop, but hopefully not as destructive.
Thanks for reading! See you next week.
Extreme armour in the world’s oldest ankylosaur - Nature
The ankylosaurian dinosaur Spicomellus afer possessed a tail weapon and uniquely elaborate dermal armour.Nature
For years, researchers have puzzled over how two ingredients for life first linked up on early Earth. Now, they’ve found the “missing link,” and demonstrated this reaction in the lab.#TheAbstract
Scientists Make Breakthrough in Solving the Mystery of Life’s Origin
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Subscribe to 404 Media to get The Abstract, our newsletter about the most exciting and mind-boggling science news and studies of the week.Scientists have made a major breakthrough in the mystery of how life first emerged on Earth by demonstrating how two essential biological ingredients could have spontaneously joined together on our planet some four billion years ago.
All life on Earth contains ribonucleic acid (RNA), a special molecule that helps build proteins from simpler amino acids. To kickstart this fundamental biological process, RNA and amino acids had to become attached at some point. But this key step, known as RNA aminoacylation, has never been experimentally observed in early Earth-like conditions despite the best efforts of many researchers over the decades.
Now, a team has achieved this milestone in the quest to unravel life’s origins. As they report in a study published on Wednesday in Nature, the researchers were able to link amino acids to RNA in water at a neutral pH with the aid of energetic chemical compounds called thioesters. The work revealed that two contrasting origin stories for life on Earth, known as “RNA world” and “thioester world,” may both be right.
“It unites two theories for the origin of life, which are totally separate,” said Matthew Powner, a professor of organic chemistry at University College London and an author of the study, in a call with 404 Media. “These were opposed theories—either you have thioesters or you have RNA.”
“What we found, which is kind of cool, is that if you put them both together, they're more than the sum of their parts,” he continued. “Both aspects—RNA world and thioester world—might be right and they’re not mutually exclusive. They can both work together to provide different aspects of things that are essential to building a cell.”
In the RNA world theory, which dates back to the 1960s, self-replicating RNA molecules served as the initial catalysts for life. The thioester world theory, which gained traction in the 1990s, posits that life first emerged from metabolic processes spurred on by energetic thioesters. Now, Powner said, the team has found a “missing link” between the two.
Powner and his colleagues didn’t initially set out to merge the two ideas. The breakthrough came almost as a surprise after the team synthesized pantetheine, a component of thioesters, in simulated conditions resembling early Earth. The team discovered that if amino acids are linked to pantetheine, they naturally attach themselves to RNA at molecular sites that are consistent with what is seen in living things. This act of RNA aminoacylation could eventually enable the complex protein synthesis all organisms now depend on to live.
Pantetheine “is totally universal,” Powner explained. “Every organism on Earth, every genome sequence, needs this molecule for some reason or other. You can't take it out of life and fully understand life.”
“That whole program of looking at pantetheine, and then finding this remarkable chemistry that pantetheine does, was all originally designed to just be a side study,” he added. “It was serendipity in the sense that we didn't expect it, but in a scientific way that we knew it would probably be interesting and we'd probably find uses for it. It’s just the uses we found were not necessarily the ones we expected.”
The researchers suggest that early instances of RNA aminoacylation on Earth would most likely have occurred in lakes and other small bodies of water, where nutrients could accumulate in concentrations that could up the odds of amino acids attaching to RNA.
“It's very difficult to envisage any origins of life chemistry in something as large as an ocean body because it's just too dilute for chemistry,” Powner said. For that reason, they suggest future studies of so-called “soda lakes” in polar environments that are rich in nutrients, like phosphate, and could serve as models for the first nurseries of life on Earth.
The finding could even have implications for extraterrestrial life. If life on Earth first emerged due, in part, to this newly identified process, it’s possible that similar prebiotic reactions can be set in motion elsewhere in the universe. Complex molecules like pantetheine and RNA have never been found off-Earth (yet), but amino acids are present in many extraterrestrial environments. This suggests that the ingredients of life are abundant in the universe, even if the conditions required to spark it are far more rare.
While the study sheds new light on the origin of life, there are plenty of other steps that must be reconstructed to understand how inorganic matter somehow found a way to self-replicate and start evolving, moving around, and in our case as humans, conducting experiments to figure out how it all got started.
“We get so focused on the details of what we're trying to do that we don't often step back and think, ‘Oh, wow, this is really important and existential for us,’” Powner concluded.
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Subscribe to 404 Media to get The Abstract, our newsletter about the most exciting and mind-boggling science news and studies of the week.Thioester-mediated RNA aminoacylation and peptidyl-RNA synthesis in water - Nature
Aminoacyl-thiols reacting selectively with RNA diols over amine nucleophiles and demonstration of chemically controlled formation of peptidyl-RNA in water at neutral pH suggest an important role for thiol cofactors before the evolution of enzymes.Nature
Scientists filmed a bat family in their roost for months, capturing never-before-seen (and very cute) behaviors.#TheAbstract
Scientists Discovered Bats Group Hugging and It’s Adorable
Welcome back to the Abstract! Here are the studies this week that ruled the roost, warmed the soul, and departed for intergalactic frontiers.It will be a real creature feature this week. First, we will return to the realm of bats and discover that it is, in fact, still awesome. Then: poops from above; poops from the past; a very special bonobo; and last, why some dead stars are leaving the Milky Way in a hurry.
Bat hugs > Bear hugs
Welcome to The Real World: Bat Roost. Scientists installed a camera into a tree hollow in Guanacaste, Costa Rica to film a tight-knit family of four spectral bats (Vampyrum spectrum) over the course of several months. The results revealed many never-before-seen behaviors including bats hugging, playing with cockroaches, and even breaking the fourth wall.
“We provide the first comprehensive account of prey provision and other social behaviors in the spectral bat V. spectrum,” said researchers led by Marisa Tietge of Humboldt University in Berlin. “By conducting extensive video recordings in their roost, we aimed to document and analyze key behaviors.”
Spectral bats are the biggest bats in the New World, with wingspans that can exceed three feet. They are carnivorous—feasting on rodents, birds, and even other species of bat—and they mate in monogamous pairs, which is unusual for mammals. But while huge flesh-eating bats sound scary, the new study revealed that these predators have a soft side.
For example, the footage captured a “greeting” ritual that included “a hugging-like interaction between a bat already in the roost and a newly arrived bat,” according to the study.
“The resident bat may actively approach or greet the newcomer as it reaches close proximity in the main roosting area,” the team said. “The greeting behavior is comparable to the initiation to social roosting, where at least one bat wraps its wings around the other, establishing a ball-like formation for several seconds. This behavior is often accompanied by social vocalizations.”
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There’s nothing like coming home after a graveyard shift to a warm welcome in a fuzzy ball-like formation. In keeping with their gregarious nature, the footage also showed that the bats are very generous with sharing prey, with only a single instance of a “tug-of-war” breaking out over dinner.“Prey provision was a clearly cooperative social behavior wherein a bat successfully captured prey, brought it to the roost where group members were present, and willingly transferred the prey to another bat,” the researchers said. “Audible chewing noises are a distinctive feature of this process.”
Loud chewers in any other context are profoundly irritating, but these bats get a pass because it’s kind of hard to be quiet while crunching through mouse bones perched upside-down.
In addition to all the hugging and prey-sharing, the bats were also observed playing together by chasing cockroaches or, in one case, messing with the camera by altering its position. I can’t wait for the next season!
In other news…
Skyward scat
Speaking of putting cameras in weird places, why not strap them to the bellies of seabirds? Scientists went ahead and did this, ostensibly to examine the flight dynamics of streaked shearwaters, which are Pacific seabirds. But the tight focus on the bird-bums produced a different revelation: Shearwaters almost exclusively poop while on the wing.
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“A total of 195 excretions were observed from 35.9 hours of video data obtained from 15 streaked shearwaters,” said authors Leo Uesaka and Katsufumi Sato of the University of Tokyo. “Excretion immediately after takeoff was frequent, with 50 percent of the 82 first excretion events during the flying periods occurring within 30 seconds after take-off and 36.6 percent within 10 seconds.”“Occasionally, birds took off, excreted, and returned to the water within a minute; these take-offs are speculated to be only for excretion,” the team continued. “These results strongly suggest that streaked shearwaters intentionally avoid excretion while floating on the sea surface.”
This preference for midair relief might allow seabirds to lighten their load, prevent backward contamination, and avoid predators that sniff out excrement. Whatever the reason, these aerial droppings provide nutrients to ocean ecosystems, so bombs away.
Please clean up after your 9,000-year-old dog
Hold onto your butts, because we’re not done with scatological science yet. A study this week stepped into some very ancient dog doo recovered from a frozen site on Siberia’s Zhokhov Island, which was inhabited by Arctic peoples 9,000 years ago.
By analyzing the “paleofeces,” scientists were able to reconstruct the diet of these canine companions, which were bred in part as sled dogs. The results provide the first evidence of parasites in Arctic dogs of this period, suggesting that the dogs were fed raw fish, reindeer, and polar bear.
“The high infection rate in dogs with diphyllobothriasis indicates a significant role of fishing in the economic activities of Zhokhov inhabitants, despite the small amount of direct archaeological evidence for this activity,” said researchers led by S.M. Slepchenko of Tyumen Scientific Center. “The presence of Taeniidae eggs indicates that dogs were fed reindeer meat.”
The team also noted that after excavation, the excrement samples were “packaged entirely in a separate hermetically sealed plastic bag and labeled.” It seems even prehistoric dog poop ends up in plastic bags.
Kanzi the unforgettable bonobo
Playing hide-and-seek with bonobos is just plain fun, but it also doubles as a handy experiment for testing whether these apes—our closest living relatives—can track the whereabouts of people, even when they are out of sight.
Kanzi, a bonobo known for tool use and language skills, participated in experiments in which his caretakers hid behind screens. He was asked to identify them from pictures or voices and succeeded more than half the time, above chance (here’s a video of the experiment).
”Kanzi presented a unique and powerful opportunity to address our question in a much more straightforward way than would be possible with almost any other ape in the world,” said authors Luz Carvajal and Christopher Krupenye of Johns Hopkins University. “He exhibited not only strong engagement with cognitive tasks but also rich forms of communication with humans—including pointing, use of symbols, and response to spoken English.”
Kanzi was also a gamer who played Pac-Man and Minecraft. Image: William H. Calvin, PhD -
Sadly, this was one of Kanzi’s last amazing feats, as he died in March at the age of 44 in his long-time home at the Ape Initiative in Des Moines, Iowa. But as revealed by this posthumous study, Kanzi’s legacy as a cognitive bridge between apes lives on. RIP to a real one.Zero to 4.5 million mph in a millisecond
We will close with dead stars that are careening out of the galaxy at incomprehensible speeds. These objects, known as hypervelocity white dwarfs, are corpses of stars similar in scale to the Sun, but it remains unclear why some of them fully yeet themselves into intergalactic space.
“Hypervelocity white dwarfs (HVWDs) are stellar remnants moving at speeds that exceed the Milky Way’s escape velocity,” said researchers co-led by Hila Glanz and Hagai B. Perets of the Technion–Israel Institute of Technology. “The origins of the fastest HVWDs are enigmatic, with proposed formation scenarios struggling to explain both their extreme velocities and observed properties.”
The team modeled a possible solution that involves special white dwarfs with dense carbon-oxygen cores and outer layers of helium, known as hybrid helium-carbon-oxygen (HeCO) white dwarfs. When two He-CO white dwarfs merge, it may trigger a “double-detonation explosion” that launches one of the objects to speeds of about 4.5 million miles per hour.
“We have demonstrated that the merger of two HeCO white dwarfs can produce HVWDs with properties consistent with observations” which “provides a compelling explanation for the origin of the fastest HVWDs and sheds new light on the diversity of explosive transients in the Universe,” the researchers concluded.
With that, may you sail at hypervelocity speeds out of this galaxy and into the weekend.
Thanks for reading! See you next week.
Cooperative behaviors and social interactions in the carnivorous bat Vampyrum spectrum
Bats exhibit a diverse array of social behaviors, yet detailed studies on the intricacies of these interactions, particularly in rare species like the spectral bat (Vampyrum spectrum), remain scarce.journals.plos.org
In addition to Planet Nine, the solar system may also contain a closer, smaller world that could be spotted soon, according to a new preprint study.#TheAbstract
A ‘Warp’ In Our Solar System Might Be an Undiscovered World: Planet Y
Scientists have discovered possible hints of an undiscovered world in the solar system—nicknamed “Planet Y”—orbiting about 100 to 200 times farther from the Sun than Earth, according to a new study.The newly proposed planet, assuming it exists, is predicted to be somewhere between Mercury and Earth in scale, which would likely make it detectable within the next few years. It is distinct from Planet Nine or Planet X, another hypothetical planet that is predicted to be much larger and more distant than Planet Y.
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Scientists speculated about the potential existence of Planet Y after discovering a strange “warp” in the Kuiper belt, which is a ring of icy bodies beyond Neptune, reports the study, which was posted on the preprint server arXiv on Wednesday.“We still are skeptical because it's not a ‘grand slam’ signal by any means,” said Amir Siraj, a graduate student in astrophysics at Princeton University who led the study, in a call with 404 Media. “At the most, it's a hint—or it’s suggestive of—an unseen planet.” The paper has been accepted for publication in The Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Siraj said.
Siraj and his co-authors made the discovery while laying the groundwork for an upcoming search for Planet Nine. For more than a decade, scientists have debated whether this hypothetical world—roughly five to ten times as massive as Earth, making it a “super-Earth” or “mini-Neptune”—is orbiting at a distance of at least 400 astronomical units (AU), where one AU is the distance between Earth and the Sun.
Scientists came up with the Planet Nine hypothesis after observing small celestial bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune called trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs), which appear to be gravitationally influenced by some hidden phenomenon. Planet Nine could be the culprit.
It’s an exciting time for Planet Nine watchers, as the next-generation Vera C. Rubin Observatory in Chile achieved first light in June. Rubin is expected to begin running its signature project, the Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST), by the end of 2025, and will spend a decade scanning the southern sky to produce a time-lapsed map that could expose Planet Nine, if it exists.
For this reason, scientists are gearing up for a worldwide race to be the first to spot the planet in the incoming LSST data. To prepare for the observational onslaught, Siraj and his colleagues have been developing new techniques to learn all they can about the murky Kuiper belt.
“This is something I've been focusing on for the past couple of years, particularly because we are going to be flooded very soon—knock on wood—with thousands of new TNOs from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory’s LSST,” said Siraj. “So, my philosophy for the past couple of years has been, well, let me make sure I know everything that I can know from all the efforts so far.”
To that end, the team developed an improved technique for measuring the mean motions of objects in the distant Kuiper belt and comparing them to the plane of the solar system. Ideally, the mean plane of the objects’ orbits should fall in line with the solar system’s plane, but deviations could point to more evidence for Planet Nine.
Instead, the team’s novel approach found that the Kuiper belt’s mean plane was tilted by about 15 degrees relative to the solar system plane at ranges of 80 to 400 AU. This “warp” could be caused by many factors, such as orbital resonances with known solar system planets. But it could also hint at the presence of a small rocky world, lurking anywhere from three-to-five times as far as the orbit of Pluto.
“It was certainly a big surprise,” Siraj said. “If this warp holds up, the best explanation we can come up with is an undiscovered and relatively small inclined planet, roughly 100 to 200 AU from the Sun. The other thing that was exciting to us is that, whether the warp is real or not, it will be very quickly confirmed or refuted within the first few years of LSST’s operation.”
If there truly is an undiscovered Mercury-ish world beyond Pluto, it is probably a homegrown member of the solar system that was ejected by the turbulent environment in the early solar system. Planet Nine, in contrast, could have either formed in the solar system, or it could have been a wandering exoplanet that was gravitationally captured by the solar system.
“The solar system probably formed with a lot of planetary embryos,” Siraj said. “There were probably a lot of bodies that were roughly Mercury-mass and most of them likely were just scattered out of the solar system like balls in a pinball machine during the violent stages of solar system formation.”
“That would definitely be the most likely and possible formation scenario for such an object,” he added. “I think it would be very unlikely for an orbit like this to be produced from a capture event.”
Time will tell whether or not the warp represents a lost world that was kicked out of our local neighborhood more than four billion years ago. But the intense focus on the outer solar system and its many mysteries, spurred by LSST, is sure to bring a flood of new discoveries regardless. Indeed, the hypothetical existence of Planet Y does not rule out the existence of Planet Nine (and vice versa) so there may well be multiple mysterious worlds waiting to be added to our solar family.
“It is really remarkably hard to see objects in the outer solar system,” Siraj said. “These kinds of measurements were not even remotely possible 20 years ago, so this speaks to the technological progress that's been made. It is potentially putting us into an era in astronomy that's unfamiliar these days, but was much more familiar in, say, the 1700s or 1800s—the idea of adding another planet to our own solar system.”
Caltech Researchers Find Evidence of a Real Ninth Planet
Planet Nine's existence was discovered by Konstantin Batygin and Mike Brown through mathematical modeling and computer simulations.California Institute of Technology
A 500-year-old human hair in a rare khipu challenges the long-held idea that only elite men created these knotted records in the Inka empire.#TheAbstract
A Strand of Hair Just Changed What We Know About the Inka Empire
Welcome back to the Abstract! Here are the studies that stood out to me this week, covering everything from silver to scat.First, a story about an ancient Andean tradition that will somehow end with a full-sized replica of a person posthumously made with his own hair. Enjoy the ride!
Then: the health risks of climate change for children; you’ll never guess what came out of this otter’s butthole; and wow, Vikings sure were good at raiding, huh.
The tangled origins of Inka khipus
For thousands of years, Andean peoples have woven intricate patterns, known as khipus, that encode information into clusters of knots and multi-colored threads. Made from cotton, wool, and often human hair, khipus are an idiosyncratic form of writing used for a range of purposes like arithmetic, census-keeping, calendrical cycles, and more.
Spanish invaders, who overthrew the Inka empire in the 16th century, reported that only high-ranking bureaucratic men became khipu-makers (khipukamayuqs)—though this assertion has been challenged in the past by Indigenous sources.
Now, a strand of human hair woven into a 500-year-old khipu has resolved this centuries-old question. Scientists performed an isotopic analysis of the hair, revealing that the individual who wove it into the khipu was likely a low-status commoner with a simple plant-based diet. The discovery confirms that khipus were made by people from different classes and backgrounds, and that Inka women probably made them as well.
Khipukamayuqs “have been viewed primarily as imperial male elites who played key roles in running the empire,” said researchers led by Sabine Hyland of the University of St. Andrews. “However, the indigenous chronicler, Guaman Poma de Ayala”—who lived in the 16th century—”stated that women also made khipu records, explaining that females over fifty “[kept] track of everything on their [khipu],” the team added.
Hyland and her colleagues found a solution to the discordant accounts in a khipu called KH0631, which was made around the year 1498. Though the provenance of the khipu is not known, the primary cord was made of human hair, allowing them to unravel the diet of this ancient khipukamayuq from the elemental composition of their tresses.
The primary cord of KH0631. Image: Sabine Hyland
The sampled strand was more than three feet long, and would have taken about eight years to grow. Carbon and nitrogen analysis of the hair indicated that it belonged to an individual that “ate a plant-based diet consisting primarily of tubers and greens with little consumption of meat or high-status plants such as maize,” according to the study. Strontium analysis showed “little marine contribution to the diet, indicating that the individual likely lived in the highlands.” Overall “this diet is a characteristic of low-status commoners, unlike the diet of high-status elites who consumed considerably more meat and maize,” the researchers said.The team speculated that this long-haired khipukamayuq could have just been a proto-vegan, but that wouldn’t explain why there was so little maize in their diet given elites were professional beer drinkers.
“Obligatory drinking of maize beer formed a central feature of Inka ceremonies of governance in which high-ranking khipukamayuqs participated,” the researchers said. “Given the symbolic importance of hair in the Andes, and the frequent use of hair on the primary cord to indicate the khipukamayuq, our results indicate that the creator of KH0631 was likely a non-elite commoner” suggesting that “khipu literacy in the Inka Empire may have been more inclusive and widespread than hitherto thought.”
IIn addition to broadening our understanding of khipukamayuq origins, the study is full of amazing insights about veneration of hair in Inka culture.
“Hair in the ancient Andes was a ritually powerful substance that represented the individual from whom it came,” the researchers said. “Historically, when human hair was incorporated into a khipu’s primary cord, it served as a ‘signature’ to indicate the person who created the khipu.”
“For important ceremonies, the Inka emperor sacrificed his own hair,” they added. “His hair clippings were saved during his lifetime; after death, they were fashioned into a life-size simulacrum revered as the emperor himself.”
I strongly suggest we revive this funerary practice, so start saving your hair clippings for your wake.
In other news…
The kids are not going to be alright
The climate crisis is a tragedy for people of all ages, but kids are among the most exposed to harm. A new study provided an exhaustive review of climate-related threats to babies, children, and adolescents, which include: food insecurity, malnutrition, water scarcity, bad air quality, infectious diseases, exposure to extreme weather, displacement, trauma, and mental illness.
“Children are particularly affected by adverse environmental influences, as their immature organ systems are less able to cope with thermal stress and disease,” said researchers led by Paula Reichelt of the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research. “Moreover, their developmental stage makes them especially vulnerable to long-term consequences; early-life nutrient or health disruptions can lead to permanent impairments in growth and development.”
A visual summary of climate-related threats to children. Image: Reichelt, Paula et al.
“Due to the relatively modest global efforts by political decision-makers to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, further global warming and the associated negative developments in child and adolescent health are likely,” the team concluded.“Relatively modest” is doing a lot of work in that sentence. While I recognize the allure of doomerism or tuning out from these horrible realities, I recommend carrying around a manageable dose of incandescent rage at all times over the world we’re leaving behind to kids who had nothing to do with this mess.
Parasite lost (in otter poop)
You have to love a study that was inspired by an otter crapping out a weird red worm on a dock in the Chesapeake Bay. Curious about the poopy parasite, researchers sought out other otter “latrines” and discovered that these furry floaters eat a lot of parasites, probably because infected prey is often easier to catch. In this way, otters efficiently remove parasites from ecosystems; it may be a bummer for any infected prey on the otter menu, but is beneficial to the wider population.
“This study is the first to characterize river otter latrines and diet in a tidally influenced estuarine habitat within the Chesapeake Bay,” said researchers led by Calli Wise of Smithsonian Environmental Research Center.
“Our results indicate that river otters consume a wide range of terrestrial and aquatic fauna, primarily consisting of finfish and crustaceans, but also including frogs and ducks,” the team said. “Multiple parasite species were identified, including parasites of river otters and those infecting prey, indicating that parasites likely play an important role in both prey availability and otter health.”
Tl;dr: Otters are parasite vacuums. Yet another reason to love these cuddly creatures and forgive their more unsavory attributes.
Some Viking booty, as a treat
We’ll end, as all things ideally should, with treasure. A new study tracks down the likely origins of a hoard of gold and silver items—including a sword pommel, jewelry, and several ingots—that were stashed by Vikings in the English town of Bedale, North Yorkshire, more than 1,200 years ago.
The Bedale Hoard. Image: York Museums Trust
Vikings are well-known for their epic raids (source: Assassin’s Creed: Valhalla) and this particular hoard included far-flung loot sourced from across Europe and the Middle East.“The results indicate a dominant contribution of western European silver, pointing to the fate of loot seized by the Vikings during their raids on the Continent in the ninth century,” said researchers led by Jane Kershaw of the University of Oxford. “Nonetheless, Islamic silver is also present in several large ingots: silver from the east—the product of long-distance trade networks connecting Scandinavia with the Islamic Caliphate—permeated Viking wealth sources even in the western part of the Viking overseas settlement and should be seen as a significant driver of the Viking phenomenon.”
“The Vikings were not only extracting wealth locally; they were also bringing it into England via long-distance trade networks,” the team concluded.
With that Viking spirit in mind—skål, and see you next week.
North American river otters consume diverse prey and parasites in a subestuary of the Chesapeake Bay
IntroductionThe North American river otter (Lontra canadensis) occurs from freshwater to marine habitats across North America, yet very little information ex...Calli M. Wise (Frontiers)
Long before modern supply chains, ancient hominins were moving stone across long distances, potentially reshaping what we know about our evolutionary roots.#TheAbstract
A New Discovery Might Have Just Rewritten Human History
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Subscribe to 404 Media to get The Abstract, our newsletter about the most exciting and mind-boggling science news and studies of the week.For more than a million years, early humans crafted stone tools as part of the Oldowan tradition, which is the oldest sustained tool-making industry in the archaeological record. Now, scientists have discovered that Oldowan tool-makers who lived in Kenya at least 2.6 million years ago transported high-quality raw materials for tools across more than seven miles to processing sites.
The find pushes the recorded timeline of this unique behavior back half-a-million years, at minimum, and reveals that hominins possessed complex cognitive capacities, like forward planning and delayed rewards, earlier than previously known, according to a study published on Friday in Science.
Hominins at this site, called Nyayanga, used their tools to pound and cut foraged plants and scavenged animals, including hippos, to prepare them for consumption. Intriguingly, the identity of the tool-makers remains unknown, and while they may have been early humans, it’s also possible that they could have been close cousins of our own Homo lineage.
“I've always thought that early tool-makers must have had more capabilities than we sometimes give them credit for,” said Emma Finestone, associate curator and the Robert J. and Linnet E. Fritz Endowed Chair of Human Origins at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, who led the study, in a call with 404 Media.
“I was excited to see that at 2.6 million years ago, hominins were making use of many different resources and moving stones over large distances,” she added.
While many animals craft and transport tools, hominins are unique in their ability to identify and move special materials across long distances, which the team defines as more than three kilometers (or 1.86 miles). This innovation reveals a capacity for forward planning, complex mental maps, and delayed payoff of food consumption.
“What's unique is the amount of effort put into moving resources around a landscape,” said Finestone. “There's several steps involved, and there's also time in between these efforts and the reward. Although you see that to some extent in other animals, humans really separate themselves, especially as we get further and further in evolutionary time, in terms of the complexities of our foraging system."
Nyayanga amphitheater in July 2025. Image: T.W. Plummer, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project
Previously, the earliest record of this behavior in hominins came from a site called Kanjera South, which is about two million years old. Both sites are on the Homa peninsula, a region dominated by soft rocks that are not durable as tools; this may have prompted early hominins to search elsewhere for high-quality resources, such as quartz, chert, and granite.Given that long-distance material transport was present at Kanjera South, the discovery of similar behavior at Nyayanga was not completely unexpected—though Finestone and her colleagues were still surprised by the scope and variety of materials these hominins gathered.
“Often, when you're dealing with these really old archeological assemblages, it's dominated by one type of raw material that's coming from a single source, or a few sources that are really nearby,” said Finestone. “Nyayanga has a lot of different raw materials, and they're using a variety of different sources, so that was surprising and exciting to us.”
Finestone and her colleagues have made many discoveries during their decade-long excavation at Nyayanga. The team previously reported that the tool-makers butchered hippopotamus carcasses which were probably scavenged rather than hunted, providing the earliest evidence of hominin consumption of large animals, according to a 2023 study led by Thomas Plummer, a professor of anthropology at Queens College, City University of New York.
That study also reported fossils from Paranthropus, a close hominin cousin of our own Homo genus, which went extinct more than a million years ago. So far, these are the only hominin remains recovered from Nyayanga, raising the possibility that the Oldowan tool-making industry was not limited to our own human lineage.
“It is interesting because Paranthropus is not traditionally thought to be a tool-user,” Finestone said. “There's debate over whether Paranthropus made tools or whether it was only genus Homo that was making Oldowan tools. I don't think that evidence at Nyayanga is definitive that Paranthropus was the tool maker. It's still an open question. But because we found Paranthropus remains at Nyayanga, and we haven't found anything from genus Homo—at least yet—there's definitely reason to consider that Paranthropus might have been manufacturing these tools.”
With luck, the team may uncover more fossils from these ancient hominins that could shed light on their place in the family. Finestone and her colleagues are also working on constraining the age of the Nyayanga artifacts, which could be anywhere from 2.6 million to three million years old.
But for now, the study marks a new milestone in the evolution of Oldowan tools and their makers, which eventually dispersed across Africa and into Europe and Asia before they were succeeded by new traditions (like the one from our story last week about yet another group of ancient tool-makers with an unknown identity).
The stones once used to butcher hippos and pound tubers offer a window into the minds of bygone hominins that pioneered technologies that ultimately made humans who we are today.
“What's really interesting about humans and their ancestors is we're a technologically dependent species,” Finestone said. “We rely on tools. We're obligate tool users. We don't do it opportunistically or occasionally the way that a lot of other animals use tools. It's really become ingrained in our way of life, in our survival, and our foraging strategies across all people and all cultures.”
“What was exciting about this study is that you see this investment in tool technology, and you see tools becoming ingrained in the landscape-scale behaviors of hominins 2.6 million years ago,” she concluded. “We might be seeing the roots of this importance that technology plays in our foraging behaviors and also just the daily rhythms of our life.”
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Scientists have discovered the culprit behind sea star wasting disease, the most devastating marine epidemic on record.#theabstract
Billions of Sea Stars Mysteriously Turned to Goo. Now We Know Why.
Welcome back to the Abstract! Here are the studies this week that gave me hope, sent me back in time, and dragged me onto the dance-floor.First, what’s your favorite cockatoo dance move? To be fully informed in your response, you will need to review the latest literature on innovations in avian choreography. Then: salvation for sea stars, a tooth extraction you’ll actually like, ancient vortex planets, and what to expect when you’re an expecting cockroach.
Everybody do the cockatoo
If you play your cards right as a scientist, you can spend all day watching cockatoos dance online and IRL. That’s what one team of researchers figured out, according to a new study that identified 17 cockatoo dance moves previously unknown to science.
“Anecdotally, parrots (Psittaciformes) have been reported to show ‘dancing’ behaviour to music in captivity which has been supported by studies on a few individuals,” said researchers led by Natasha Lubke of Charles Sturt University. “However, to date it remains unclear why parrots show dance behavior in response to music in captivity when birds are not courting or in the absence of any potential sexual partner.” Cockatoos, by the way, are a type of parrot.
It’s worth pursuing this mystery in part because parrots are popular pets and zoo attractions that require environmental enrichment for their welfare while in captivity. Listening to music and dancing could provide much-needed stimulation for these smart, social animals.
To that end, the authors watched dozens of videos of cockatoos on YouTube, TikTok, and Instagram, with search terms like “birds dancing Elvis,” “bird dancing to rap music” and “bird dancing to rock music.” They also played music and podcasts to a group of captive birds—two sulphur crested cockatoos (Cacatua galerita), two Major Mitchell cockatoos (Lophochroa leadbeateri) and two galahs (Eolophus roseicapilla)—housed at Wagga Wagga Zoo in Australia.
Illustration of the 10 most common recorded dance movements. Ethogram descriptors based on Keehn et al. [3] and illustrations by Zenna Lugosi. Image: Lubke et al., 2025, PLOS One, CC-BY 4.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)
The results expanded the existing database of cockatoo dance moves from classics like headbang, foot-lift, and body roll to include new-wave choreography like jump turn, downward walk, and fluff (wherein “feathers are fluffed” in a “fluffing event” according to the study).All the birds that the team studied onsite at the zoo also danced at least once to audio playback of the song “The Nights” by Avicii. They even danced when music was not playing, bopping around to silence or to tips from the financial podcast “She’s on the Money.”
“Dance behaviour is perhaps a more common behaviour in cockatoos than previously thought,” the team concluded. “Further research is required to determine the motivational basis for this behaviour in captivity.”
It will be interesting to see what forthcoming studies reveal, but my own prediction is that the motivational basis falls under Lady Gaga’s edict to “Just Dance.”
In other news…
Solving the mystery of what’s killing billions of sea stars
Over the past decade, a devastating illness has killed off billions of sea stars in what is the largest marine epidemic on record. Scientists have finally identified the culprit that causes sea star wasting disease (SSWD) as the bacteria Vibrio pectenicida, which is from the same family that causes cholera in humans (Vibrio cholerae).
Sea stars infected with SSWD form lesions and rapidly disintegrate into goo in mass mortality events that have upended ecosystems on the Pacific coast from Alaska to Mexico. The isolation of the agent involved in these grotesque die-offs will hopefully help restore these vital keystone species.
Hakai Institute research scientist Alyssa Gehman checks on an adult sunflower sea star in the US Geological Survey’s Marrowstone Marine Field Station in Washington State. Image: Kristina Blanchflower/Hakai Institute
“This discovery will enable recovery efforts for sea stars and the ecosystems affected by their decline,” said researchers led by Melanie Prentice of the Hakai Institute and the University of British Columbia.Psst…you have some ancient atmosphere stuck in your teeth
For the first time, scientists have reconstructed atmospheres that existed more than 100 million years ago by studying the teeth of dinosaurs that breathed in this bygone air.
A team analyzed oxygen remnants preserved in the dental enamel of roughly two dozen dinosaur teeth including sauropods (such as Camarasaurus), theropods (including Tyrannosaurus), and the ornithischian Edmontosaurus (go Oilers). This data enabled them to infer carbon dioxide concentrations of around 1,200 parts per million (ppm) and 750 ppm in the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, respectively.
This is in line with other findings that have found wild swings in CO2 levels during the dinosaur age, likely due to volcanic activity. Earth’s current atmosphere is about 430 ppm, and is rapidly rising due to human-driven greenhouse gas emissions.
Skull with teeth of a Kaatedocus siberi found at Howe Ranch, Wyoming, USA. Image: © Sauriermuseum Aathal
“Fossil tooth enamel can thus serve as a robust time capsule for ancient air [oxygen] isotope compositions,” said researchers led by Dingsu Feng of the University of Göttingen. “This novel form of analysis can “provide insights into past atmospheric greenhouse gas content and global primary productivity.”Vortex planets from the dawn of light
The first planets ever born in the universe may have formed in vortices around ancient stars more than 13.6 billion years ago. These stars were made of light elements, such as hydrogen and helium, but each new generation forged an itty-bit of heavier elements in their bellies that could potentially provide basic planetary building blocks.
By running simulations of this early epoch, known as cosmic dawn, researchers led by Linn E.J. Eriksson of the American Museum of Natural History found that small rocky worlds, on the scale of Mercury or Mars, could coalesce from dust and pebbles trapped in so-called “vortices,” which are like cosmic eddies that form in disks around newborn stars.
As a consequence, this “suggests that vortices could trigger the formation of the first generation of planets and planetesimals in the universe,” the team said.
Congratulations to everyone who had “ancient vortex planets from cosmic dawn” on their bingo card this week.
Wash it all down with a glass of cockroach milk
We began with cockatoos and we’ll close with cockroaches. Scientists have been bothering sleepy pregnant cockroaches, according to a new study on the Pacific beetle mimic cockroach, which is one of the few insects that produces milk and gives birth to live young.
“To our knowledge, no study has investigated the direct relationship between sleep and pregnancy in invertebrates, which leaves open the questions: do pregnant individuals follow similar sleep and activity patterns to their non-pregnant counterparts, and how important is sleep for successful pregnancy?” said researchers led by Ronja Frigard of the University of Cincinnati.
Biologists found that pregnant cockroaches need more sleep and those that are sleep-deprived have babies that require longer gestation to develop. Image: Andrew Higley
As it turns out, it’s very important! The team disrupted pregnant cockroaches by shaking their containers four times during their sleeping period for weeks on end. While the well-rested control group averaged 70 days for its gestation period, the sleep-deprived group took over 90 days to deliver their young. In addition, “when chronic sleep disturbance occurs, milk protein levels decline, decreasing nutrients available to the embryos during development,” the team concluded.For those of us who have been woken up at night by the scuttling of cockroaches, this study is our revenge. Enjoy it while you can, because the smart money is on cockroaches outliving us all.
Thanks for reading! See you next week.
Dance behaviour in cockatoos: Implications for cognitive processes and welfare
Parrots (Aves, Psittaciformes) in captivity have been reported to show dance behaviour in response to music, which may involve complex cognitive processes including imitation, vocal learning and entrainment.journals.plos.org
Stone tools found on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi reveal a long-lost population of human relatives; their identity, and how they crossed the sea, is a mystery.#TheAbstract #science
Million-Year-Old Evidence of Epic Journey Near ‘Hobbit’ Island Discovered by Scientists
Scientists have discovered million-year-old artifacts made by a mysterious group of early humans on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, according to a breakthrough study published on Wednesday in Nature.The extraordinary find pushes the archaeological record of Sulawesi back by about 800,000 years, and confirms that hominins, the broader family to which humans belong, crossed treacherous ocean passages to reach the island, where they crafted simple tools.
The tool-makers may have been related to a group of archaic humans—nicknamed “hobbits” for their short stature—that lived on nearby Flores Island. But while the hobbits left behind skeletal remains, no fossils from the Sulawesi group have been unearthed. The tools, found at a site called Calio in South Sulawesi, are the only record of their existence for now.
“The discovery of these ancient stone tools at Calio is another important piece of the puzzle in our understanding of the movements of early hominins from the edge of the Asian landmass into the isolated zone of islands known as Wallacea,” said Adam Brumm, a professor of archaeology at Griffith University and a co-author of the new study, in an email.
“A major question remaining is the identity of the archaic humans of Sulawesi,” he added, noting that they might be Homo erectus, or descendents of this influential early human species that migrated from Africa to Asia. ”But until we have their fossils, who they were will remain a mystery.”
Stone tools dated to over 1.04 million-years-old, scale bars are 10mm. Image: M W Moore
The discovery was made by Budianto “Budi” Hakim, an Indonesian archaeologist who has spent decades searching for traces of archaic humans in Sulawesi. Hakim spotted one of the artifacts while scouring the region’s sandstone outcrops, prompting an excavation that unearthed a total of seven flaked tools crafted from chert rock. The remains of extinct elephants and pigs were also found in the sedimentary layers at the site, hinting at an ancient origin.The team used two independent methods to date the tools, both of which placed their age at a minimum of 1.04 million years old, making the artifacts the earliest evidence for hominin occupation of Sulawesi by far.
“Budi has been searching for this evidence for much of his life, so it is very exciting indeed,” said Brumm. “But it is not so surprising that we now have evidence for hominins on Sulawesi by one million years ago; we have long suspected that there had been a very deep history of human occupation of this island based on the discovery (in 2010) of stone tools on Flores to the south that date to at least a million years ago. Sulawesi was probably where the first hominins to set foot on Flores actually came from, so it made sense to us that the human presence on Sulawesi would go back at least as far as a million years, if not considerably earlier.”
“And personally, it did not surprise me that Budi unearthed this new find,” he continued. “He is a renowned figure in Indonesian archaeology and undoubtedly has the ‘golden touch.’”
The tools are sharp-edged flakes that were probably cut from larger rocks obtained from a nearby river channel. Like many tools made by hominins across time and regions, they would have been useful for cutting and scraping materials, though their exact purpose is unknown.
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The tools “can’t tell us very much about the behaviour or cognitive capacities of these early humans, other than that they were tool-makers who clearly understood how to choose stones with suitable properties and to fracture them in a controlled way to produce a supply of usable tools,” explained Brumm. “Over the past 2.5 million years, many different hominin species (including our own, Homo sapiens) have made stone tools that are essentially indistinguishable from the Sulawesi tools.”In addition to their mysterious identity, it is unclear how these early humans crossed ocean waters to reach these island shores, given that the shortest distance between the Asian mainland and Sulawesi would have been 30 miles, at minimum.
“This is too far to swim (in any case the ocean currents are too strong),” Brumm explained. “It is also very unlikely these archaic hominins had the cognitive ability to develop watercraft that were capable of making sea voyages, or indeed of the advanced planning required to gather resources and set sail over the horizon to an unseen land.”
“Most likely, they crossed to Sulawesi from the Asian mainland in the same way rodents and monkeys are suspected to have done; that is, by accident, perhaps as castaways on natural ‘rafts’ of floating vegetation,” he concluded.
It’s incredible to imagine these early humans getting caught up in tides or currents, perhaps stranded at sea for days, only to serendipitously wash up on a vast island that would become home to untold generations. Hakim, Brumm, and their colleagues hope to find more evidence of this long-lost population in the coming years, but for now, the stone tools offer a rare window into the lives of these accidental seafarers and their descendants.
Hominins on Sulawesi during the Early Pleistocene - Nature
Early Pleistocene artefacts at Calio suggest that Sulawesi was populated by hominins at around the same time as Flores, if not earlier.Nature